Ninja Documents From The Webb

[Freddie]

The truth of Ninja -Ninja Encyclopedia-
Ninja Encyclopedia
Today,"Ninja"s are well known in all over the world. By the way,actually, who are they? In old days,when Japan had been separated in many countries,the professional spies,who stole secrets of enemies,were Ninjas. We are going to introduce ,what Ninjas had really been , that only few people know.
Top Page ＞ Ninja's Weapons and Tools
Ninja's Weapons and Tools Entry List
Shuriken (Ninja Star)
Among the weapons that ninjas use, the most famous one must be the Shuriken (手裏剣 : Ninja Star) . Everyone has to have watched a scene where a ninja is throwing some star shaped piece of metal in the movies or in an anime or another piece of fiction. They are called shuriken in Japanese. Of the several kinds of shuriken, maybe the most typical kind is the Flat plate type. The shape of it is like an asteroid with four arms. But actually, there are no more than 40 to 50 types of shurikens. Ninjas u...

≫More...


Ninja Sword
Ninja swordSamurai SwordThe swords considered to be those used by ninjas are quite specific. Firstly, compared with those of samurais, they are straight and short. The length of the blade is about 540 mm. On the other hand, samurais swords have a curve on the blade for sharpness and the length of the blade is about 700 mm. It is believed that the reason why ninja’s swords have these characteristics is for various functions of use. The existence of ninjas swords during early times is unclear. Of ...

≫More...


Kusarigama
KusarigamaKusarigama is a weapon that has a sickle and a weight and looks very complex. They are connected with a chain. The length of the chain is about 1000-4000 mm. To use it, the weight was thrown at the enemy’s weapon to drop it or used to coil the weight around an arm or the enemy’s weapon with the chain. After that, a finishing blow was dealt with the sickle to the enemy. The methods of using Kusarigama are so varied that users can attack in any way using a combination of a sickle and a...

≫More...


Kunai
KunaiBasically for Ninjas, there is no determinate distinction between tools and weapons. Ninjas utilize everything around them or everything that they have with them both as tools and weapons.Kunai (苦無) is an implement which indicates such speciality of Ninjas. Kunai is the most famous weapon of Ninjas second only to Shuriken (手裏剣) . Kunai is made of steel and the shape is like a wedge. One end is a blade, across the grip, another side is a circle with a round hole. The length of Kunai is 100～4...

≫More...


Makibishi
Ninja scattering MakibishiWe can find an interesting contrast between Ninja and Samurai here also. Now, I am talking about "escape". As a samurai is a kind of a soldier, deserting under enemy fire is the most shameful thing he could do. If found out by his officer, he would be executed. But in the case of ninja who is a kind of spy, to escape is one of the most important aspect of a mission. Because it would be in vain if he was captured even if he had succeeded in stealing important information...

≫More...


Tekko-Kagi
Tekko-Kagi for both handsNinja scratching an enemywith Tekko-KagiOne of the biggest differences between weapons of samurai and those of ninjas was that the former was made only for the purpose of killing a person, on the other hand, ninjas used many usual tools to fight with." Tekko-Kagi (手甲鉤) " was very much in this category of usual tools. By nature, the origin of Tekko-Kagi was as a farm implement. It is a kind of a sickle used for reaping weeds. The speciality of ninjas was that they were ab...

≫More...


Kakute
Ninja using a KakuteHave you ever had such an experience? When you were shaking hands with someone and he or she had a ring around his or her finger and you felt a little pain from the pressure. I want you to imagine that the ring had sharp corners. In such a case it could certainly be used as a weapon. Kakute (角手) is exactly such a type of a weapon which ninjas used. Kakute is a ring that has a few horns around the surface. Basically, ninjas did not like close combat but there were sometimes c...

≫More...


Manriki-Gusari
Manriki-gusari (万力鎖) is a one of the secret weapons of the ninja. The shape of manriki-gusari is quite simple. Weights are attached on both ends of the weapon and these weights are connected with a chain. The length of the chain is different depending on the ninja school it’s from. Generally they weigh between 300 to 400g.Basically, manriki-gusari is a self-defence weapon. It is so tiny that Ninjas can bring it in their pocket. They are used in a variety of ways. Firstly, when facing an opponen...

≫More...


Tekken
TekkenThe history of knuckle dusters is very long. If including individual brawls, the origin of boxing can be considered as old as that of human beings. Of course, the fist of a man is relatively fragile compared to that of a cast iron weapon that can be used time and time again. For that reason, men have used weapons attached to their hands as a substitution for fists for centuries. They are like "cestus", which ancient roman boxers wore on their hands or knuckle dusters that american ruffian...

≫More...


Needle(For Hits on Fatal Spots of Target...
The key characteristic of ninja weapons is that there is little difference between them and regular tools. This is true for both the shape and function. Ninjas utilize weapons and tools according to the circumstances they’re used in. There are some ninja weapons whose forms are like a needle. We are going to see them from such a view. In pre-modern Japan, women usually wore an ornamental hairpin called " a kanzashi ( かんざし ) " on their heads. The length of a kanzashi was about 160 mm, and the wei...

≫More...


Blowgun
It has been described in previous articles but is certainly worth elaborating more on the details as such information about ninjas and needles is not easy to find and is very important to understanding the ninja.First of all, the boss of Iga (伊賀) Ninjas was the Hattori (服部) - Family. In chinese, "服部" means a specialist of weaving. Supposedly, the Hattori ninja family were originally clothing craftspeople in China and they came to Japan in ancient times. It is said that Hattori used the art of ...

≫More...


Ninja firearms
The relationship between ninjas and fire is incredibly deep. The introduction of guns from the Western world to Japan was in 1543. A Chinese ship on which two Portuguese were aboard drifted ashore on Tanegashima-island (種子島). The Portuguese sold two guns to the lords of Tanegashima. Because incidentally this was during the Age of the Warring States period, guns spread all around Japan rapidly.But surprisingly, ninjas were well aware of gunpowder and bombs hundreds of years before that time. It i...

≫More...


Nigiri-Teppo(Handy Ninja Guns)
Nigiri-TeppoMatchlocks were introduced to Japan from the Western-World in 1543. After that, while independent of Europe the Japanese people invented a handgun for themselves. Further to this, ninjas created handy guns as secret weapons called " Nigiri-Teppo (握り鉄砲) ". Generally speaking, the construction of a gun is quite simple. In order to make a gun, there are two essential items needed, a barrel and an ignition device. It is OK as long as they are tough and functional.The form of the gun is n...

≫More...


The Secret Medicines of Ninjas
The flower of the aconite treeNinjas lived in the deep mountains, where various type of plants grow. Ninjas lived a life unified with nature and had a deep knowledge of vegetation. So, it is quite natural that Ninjas utilized many wild vegetation for their diet and medical treatment. Ninjas conducted peddling of medicine and went all around Japan. The main reason was to gather information about other countries. It can be said that Ninjas were well informed about medicine even as much as doctors....

≫More...


Shikomizue
ShikomizueI have described about "Shikomizue (仕込み杖) " as a Ninja's secret weapon in a previous entry but shikomizue has many other variations in look and use which I will elaborate on. Firstly, there was a hidden weapon named "Shikomitessen", its shape was that of a folding fan, "Tessen (鉄扇) " means a weapon camouflaged as a fan. There were two types of tessen. One with outer two ribs made of iron, and another with plates made from iron that are connected by a rope. Tessen were used mainly by mi...

≫More...


Nekode
A hand with Nekode on all fingersIn eastern Asia, small weapons were invented in ancient times that were called "Anki (暗器) " that weren’t just limited to ninjas. The definition of Anki was something small enough to be brought with a man for the purpose of self-defence or assassination. Anki were camouflaged to appear like a tool and not a weapon when glanced at. We often find such weapons in Chinese martial arts but there were much more Ankis used by ninjas than those fighters of kung‐fu. Nekode...

≫More...


Metsubushi
Needless to say, in a battle, if a man lost his sight, his fighting strength would be gone as he may be completely blind. For that reason, in almost all modern martial arts the any attack on the eyes of opponents is strictly prohibited. This is only the case in martial arts which have certain rules though. In the case of a ninja such regulations certainly did not apply, far from it, if anything, attacks on the eyes could be very effective for them. The fights that ninjas encountered were all fr...

≫More...


Shikoro
ShikoroAs explained many times before, for ninjas there is no clear distinction between weapons and tools. Ninjas use the same apparatus in different ways depending on the circumstances, sometimes it will be used as a weapon and at other times as a tool.I am going to describe about devices which were basically used only as tools. It goes without saying that in the Warring States period, the targets of ninjas in most cases were the lords of castles. Ninjas were security conscience to protect thei...

≫More...


Shinobi-Kumade
Ninjas climbing on a castle wallJapanese used to do things with their systematized methods and ways calling it “Jutsu (術) ". This was not only the case for ninja but all Japanese used to do this. In Japanese, ninjutus (忍術) means ninjas’ techniques. There were a lot of ninjutsu, one of them was " To-Jutsu (登術) " which teaches how to climb high” but of course any Japanese people did that as a part of their culture, and that’s where ninjutus is comes from.As explained before, ninjas were light, t...

≫More...


Kaginawa
KaginawaIt is said that Ninjas always had 6 tools with them on their missions that were called "Shinobi Rokugu (忍び六具) " . The tools used are categorized below. " Kaginawa (かぎ縄) " a climbing tool, " Inro (印籠) " a small box in which some medicine is put, " Sekihitsu (石筆) " a pen made of charcoal or clay, " Sanjaku Tenugui (三尺手ぬぐい) " a cotton towel with a length of 910mm, "Hidane (火種) " a kindling and " Amigasa (編み笠) " a braided straw hat.They were not specific equipment for ninjas, but rather casu...

≫More...


Mizugumo
MizugumoIn general, around Japanese castles many obstructions were prepared, the main one was the moat. In the Warring States period during a war, it was really hard for troops to raid the centre of a castle when there was a water moat around the castle. This fact applied not only to armies but also to individual agent provocateurs like ninjas because during the daytime, invaders were in full view from the center of the castle. Ninjas would die if sniped from inside but if ninjas could not get o...

≫More...


Hidane
" Hidane (火種) " is also one of the " shinobi-rokugu (忍び六具) " , which are the 6 necessities of ninjas like kaginawa. In Japanese, " Hi (火) " means fire, " Tane (種) " is "source" . As ninjas are a specialist of fire, firearms, and guns, they need burning fire anytime and anywhere. Sometimes it may be too late if ninjas make fire when needed. There are some ninja tools with the function of hidane. Here, I am going to introduce " Dobi (胴火) " .Dobi is one of the hidane, which is a wood pipe with a le...

≫More...


Yatate
Yatate and brush penAlthough " Yatate (矢立) " was only a pencil case for ninjas, yatate can be said to be the tool which embodied the identity of the ninja. It meant that yatate was often used as an equipment camouflaged by a gun, sword or blowgun. At a glance, the shape of yatate is really simple. It is a pipe with a length of about 300mm and on the top of the pipe, a small box is attached in which ink is put. In the pipe body, some writing brushes and chalk called " Sekihitsu (石筆) " are contain...

≫More...


Amigasa
A regular type of amigasaKomusos (虚無僧)with Amigasaon their headsAmigasa (編み笠) was also one of the 6 necessary articles of ninjas. Amigasa is a braided hat made of rushes, sedges and straw. Of course amigasa was not necessarily a tool only for ninjas, in Japan in those days, many travelers wore them on their heads as a way of shielding themselves from the sun. There are some reasons why ninjas used them regularly. Firstly, they wore them to provide the shade. The history of Amigasa is really deep...

≫More...


Kiki-Zutsu
During childhood, did you have an experience of playing with a string telephone? It was fun hearing the voice of the other person echoing in the paper cup. The sound that vibrates from the string is very low and in spite of this, the voice from the other person amplifies on a large scale. The principle of the equipment is that the soundwave from the string amplifies in the paper cup by means of resonating thousands of times in the narrow space. " Kiki-Zutsu (聞き筒) ", was a kind of bug used by nin...

≫More...


Goshiki-Mai
Goshiki-Mai (五色米)As described in a previous article, ninjas have some skills for transmitting important information to their comrades or lords. They are called " dentatsu-jutsu (伝達術) " . We are going to view only a part of dentasu-jutsu here. " Goshiki-Mai (五色米) " is one of the " dentatsu-jutsu (伝達術) ". In Japanese, " goshiki " means five colors and "Mai" means rice. Firstly, ninjas prepared five types of rice, which were painted with several colors. They were blue, yellow, red, black, and purpl...

≫More...




Menu
HOME
What is Ninja?
Ninja as entertainment
The Reality of Ninja
Ninja's Weapons and Tools
The Biography of Ninjas
Ninja's Theme Park
Various Ninja's Techniques
Study real Ninjutsu
Encyclopedie Ninja(fr)
New Entry
Ninjutsu at the present time
Banke Shiobi No Den Kensyujo
Bujinkan
Ninja Restaurants and Cafes
Ninja on the Kite
Ninja Kanji Character
Various Font of
Ninja Kanji Character
Free PDF Download!
Ninja Kanji Character


Copyright (C) 2015 Ninja Encyclopedia All Rights Reserved.

[Freddie]

Page semi-protected
Ninja
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
For other uses, see Ninja (disambiguation).
"Shinobi", "Ninja warrior", and "Chūnin" redirect here. For other uses, see Shinobi (disambiguation), Ninja Warrior (disambiguation), and Chūnin (album).

Drawing of the archetypical ninja from a series of sketches (Hokusai Manga) by Hokusai. Woodblock print on paper. Volume six, 1817.
A ninja (忍者) (hiragana: にんじゃ) or shinobi (忍び) (hiragana: しのび) was a covert agent or mercenary in feudal Japan. The functions of a ninja included espionage, deception, and surprise attacks.[1] Their covert methods of waging irregular warfare were deemed dishonorable and beneath the honor of the samurai.[2] Though shinobi proper, as specially trained spies and mercenaries, appeared in the 15th century during the Sengoku period (15th–17th centuries),[3] antecedents may have existed as early as the 12th century.[4][5]

In the unrest of the Sengoku period, mercenaries and spies for hire became active in Iga Province and the adjacent area around the village of Kōga, and it is from the area's clans that much of the knowledge of the ninja is drawn. Following the unification of Japan under the Tokugawa shogunate in the 17th century, the ninja faded into obscurity.[6] A number of shinobi manuals, often based on Chinese military philosophy, were written in the 17th and 18th centuries, most notably the Bansenshukai (1676).[7]

By the time of the Meiji Restoration (1868), shinobi had become a topic of popular imagination and mystery in Japan. Ninjas figured prominently in legend and folklore, where they were associated with legendary abilities such as invisibility, walking on water and control over the natural elements. As a consequence, their perception in popular culture is based more on such legend and folklore than on the spies of the Sengoku period.


Contents
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Predecessors
2.2 Early history
2.3 Iga and Kōga clans
2.4 Shimabara rebellion
3 Oniwaban
4 Roles
4.1 Psychological warfare
4.2 Espionage
4.3 Sabotage
4.4 Assassination
4.5 Countermeasures
5 Training
5.1 Tactics
5.2 Disguises
6 Equipment
6.1 Outerwear
6.2 Tools
6.3 Weaponry
7 Legendary abilities
7.1 Kuji-kiri
8 Foreign ninja
9 Famous people
10 In popular culture
11 Gallery
12 See also
13 Footnotes
14 References
15 Further reading
16 External links
Etymology

The word "ninja" in kanji script
Ninja is an on'yomi (Early Middle Chinese–influenced) reading of the two kanji "忍者". In the native kun'yomi kanji reading, it is pronounced shinobi, a shortened form of the transcription shinobi-no-mono (忍の者).[8]

The word shinobi appears in the written record as far back as the late 8th century in poems in the Man'yōshū.[9][10] The underlying connotation of shinobi (忍) means "to steal away; to hide" and—by extension—"to forbear", hence its association with stealth and invisibility. Mono (者) means "a person".

Historically, the word ninja was not in common use, and a variety of regional colloquialisms evolved to describe what would later be dubbed ninja. Along with shinobi, some examples include monomi ("one who sees"), nokizaru ("macaque on the roof"), rappa ("ruffian"), kusa ("grass") and Iga-mono ("one from Iga").[6] In historical documents, shinobi is almost always used.

Kunoichi, (くノ一） is, originally, an argot which means "woman",[11]:p168 supposedly came from the characters くノ一 (pronounced ku, no and ichi), which make up the three strokes that form the kanji for "woman" (女).[11]:p168 In fictions written in the modern era, Kunoichi means "female ninja",[11]:p167

In the West, the word ninja became more prevalent than shinobi in the post–World War II culture, possibly because it was more comfortable for Western speakers.[12] In English, the plural of ninja can be either unchanged as ninja, reflecting the Japanese language's lack of grammatical number, or the regular English plural ninjas.[13]

History
Despite many popular folktales, historical accounts of the ninja are scarce. Historian Stephen Turnbull asserts that the ninja were mostly recruited from the lower class, and therefore little literary interest was taken in them.[14] The social origin of the ninja is seen as the reason they agree to operate in secret, trading their service for money without honor and glory.[15] The scarcity of historical accounts is also demonstrated in war epics such as The Tale of Hōgen (Hōgen Monogatari) and The Tale of the Heike (Heike Monogatari), which focus mainly on the aristocratic samurai, whose deeds were apparently more appealing to the audience.[12]

Historian Kiyoshi Watatani states that the ninja were trained to be particularly secretive about their actions and existence:

So-called ninjutsu techniques, in short are the skills of shinobi-no-jutsu and shinobijutsu, which have the aims of ensuring that one's opponent does not know of one's existence, and for which there was special training.[16]

Predecessors

Yamato Takeru dressed as a maidservant, preparing to kill the Kumaso leaders. Woodblock print on paper. Yoshitoshi, 1886.
The title ninja has sometimes been attributed retrospectively to the semi-legendary 4th-century prince Yamato Takeru.[17] In the Kojiki, the young Yamato Takeru disguised himself as a charming maiden, and assassinated two chiefs of the Kumaso people.[18] However, these records take place at a very early stage of Japanese history, and they are unlikely to be connected to the shinobi of later accounts. The first recorded use of espionage was under the employment of Prince Shōtoku in the 6th century.[19] Such tactics were considered unsavory even in early times, when, according to the 10th-century Shōmonki, the boy spy Koharumaru was killed for spying against the insurgent Taira no Masakado.[20] Later, the 14th-century war chronicle Taiheiki contained many references to shinobi,[17] and credited the destruction of a castle by fire to an unnamed but "highly skilled shinobi".[21]

Early history
It was not until the 15th century that spies were specially trained for their purpose.[14] It was around this time that the word shinobi appeared to define and clearly identify ninja as a secretive group of agents. Evidence for this can be seen in historical documents, which began to refer to stealthy soldiers as shinobi during the Sengoku period.[22] Later manuals regarding espionage are often grounded in Chinese military strategy, quoting works such as The Art of War by Sun Tzu.[23]

The ninja emerged as mercenaries in the 15th century, where they were recruited as spies, raiders, arsonists and even terrorists. Amongst the samurai, a sense of ritual and decorum was observed, where one was expected to fight or duel openly. Combined with the unrest of the Sengoku period, these factors created a demand for men willing to commit deeds considered disreputable for conventional warriors.[19][2] By the Sengoku period, the shinobi had several roles, including spy (kanchō), scout (teisatsu), surprise attacker (kishu), and agitator (konran).[22] The ninja families were organized into larger guilds, each with their own territories.[24] A system of rank existed. A jōnin ("upper person") was the highest rank, representing the group and hiring out mercenaries. This is followed by the chūnin ("middle person"), assistants to the jōnin. At the bottom was the genin ("lower person"), field agents drawn from the lower class and assigned to carry out actual missions.[25]

Iga and Kōga clans

The plains of Iga, nested in secluded mountains, gave rise to villages specialized in the training of ninja.
The Iga and Kōga clans have come to describe families living in the province of Iga (modern Mie Prefecture) and the adjacent region of Kōka (later written as Kōga), named after a village in what is now Shiga Prefecture. From these regions, villages devoted to the training of ninja first appeared.[26] The remoteness and inaccessibility of the surrounding mountains may have had a role in the ninja's secretive development.[25] Historical documents regarding the ninja's origins in these mountainous regions are considered generally correct.[27] The chronicle Go Kagami Furoku writes, of the two clans' origins:

There was a retainer of the family of Kawai Aki-no-kami of Iga, of pre-eminent skill in shinobi, and consequently for generations the name of people from Iga became established. Another tradition grew in Kōga.[27]

Likewise, a supplement to the Nochi Kagami, a record of the Ashikaga shogunate, confirms the same Iga origin:

Inside the camp at Magari of the shōgun [Ashikaga] Yoshihisa there were shinobi whose names were famous throughout the land. When Yoshihisa attacked Rokkaku Takayori, the family of Kawai Aki-no-kami of Iga, who served him at Magari, earned considerable merit as shinobi in front of the great army of the shōgun. Since then successive generations of Iga men have been admired. This is the origin of the fame of the men of Iga.[28]

A distinction is to be made between the ninja from these areas, and commoners or samurai hired as spies or mercenaries. Unlike their counterparts, the Iga and Kōga clans produced professional ninja, specifically trained for their roles.[22] These professional ninja were actively hired by daimyōs between 1485 and 1581,[22] until Oda Nobunaga invaded Iga Province and wiped out the organized clans.[29] Survivors were forced to flee, some to the mountains of Kii, but others arrived before Tokugawa Ieyasu, where they were well treated.[30] Some former Iga clan members, including Hattori Hanzō, would later serve as Tokugawa's bodyguards.[31]

Following the Battle of Okehazama in 1560, Tokugawa employed a group of eighty Kōga ninja, led by Tomo Sukesada. They were tasked to raid an outpost of the Imagawa clan. The account of this assault is given in the Mikawa Go Fudoki, where it was written that Kōga ninja infiltrated the castle, set fire to its towers, and killed the castellan along with 200 of the garrison.[32] The Kōga ninja are said to have played a role in the later Battle of Sekigahara (1600), where several hundred Kōga assisted soldiers under Torii Mototada in the defence of Fushimi Castle.[33] After Tokugawa's victory at Sekigahara, the Iga acted as guards for the inner compounds of Edo Castle, while the Kōga acted as a police force and assisted in guarding the outer gate.[31] In 1614, the initial "winter campaign" at the Siege of Osaka saw the ninja in use once again. Miura Yoemon, a ninja in Tokugawa's service, recruited shinobi from the Iga region, and sent 10 ninja into Osaka Castle in an effort to foster antagonism between enemy commanders.[34] During the later "summer campaign", these hired ninja fought alongside regular troops at the Battle of Tennōji.[34]

Shimabara rebellion
A final but detailed record of ninja employed in open warfare occurred during the Shimabara Rebellion (1637–1638).[35] The Kōga ninja were recruited by shōgun Tokugawa Iemitsu against Christian rebels led by Amakusa Shirō, who made a final stand at Hara Castle, in Hizen Province. A diary kept by a member of the Matsudaira clan, the Amakusa Gunki, relates: "Men from Kōga in Ōmi Province who concealed their appearance would steal up to the castle every night and go inside as they pleased."[36]

The Ukai diary, written by a descendant of Ukai Kanemon, has several entries describing the reconnaissance actions taken by the Kōga.

They [the Kōga] were ordered to reconnoitre the plan of construction of Hara Castle, and surveyed the distance from the defensive moat to the ni-no-maru (second bailey), the depth of the moat, the conditions of roads, the height of the wall, and the shape of the loopholes.[36]

— Entry: 6th day of the 1st month

The ruins of Hara Castle
Suspecting that the castle's supplies might be running low, the siege commander Matsudaira Nobutsuna ordered a raid on the castle's provisions. Here, the Kōga captured bags of enemy provisions, and infiltrated the castle by night, obtaining secret passwords.[37] Days later, Nobutsuna ordered an intelligence gathering mission to determine the castle's supplies. Several Kōga ninja—some apparently descended from those involved in the 1562 assault on an Imagawa clan castle—volunteered despite being warned that chances of survival were slim.[38] A volley of shots was fired into the sky, causing the defenders to extinguish the castle lights in preparation. Under the cloak of darkness, ninja disguised as defenders infiltrated the castle, capturing a banner of the Christian cross.[38] The Ukai diary writes,

We dispersed spies who were prepared to die inside Hara castle. ... those who went on the reconnaissance in force captured an enemy flag; both Arakawa Shichirobei and Mochizuki Yo'emon met extreme resistance and suffered from their serious wounds for 40 days.[38]

— Entry: 27th day of the 1st month
As the siege went on, the extreme shortage of food later reduced the defenders to eating moss and grass.[39] This desperation would mount to futile charges by the rebels, where they were eventually defeated by the shogunate army. The Kōga would later take part in conquering the castle:

More and more general raids were begun, the Kōga ninja band under the direct control of Matsudaira Nobutsuna captured the ni-no-maru and the san-no-maru (outer bailey) ...[40]

— Entry: 24th day of the 2nd month
With the fall of Hara Castle, the Shimabara Rebellion came to an end, and Christianity in Japan was forced underground.[41] These written accounts are the last mention of ninja in war.[42]

Oniwaban
Main article: Oniwaban
In the early 18th century, shogun Tokugawa Yoshimune founded the oniwaban ("garden keeper"), an intelligence agency and secret service. Members of the oniwaban were agents involved in collecting information on daimyōs and government officials.[43] The secretive nature of the oniwaban—along with the earlier tradition of using Iga and Kōga clan members as palace guards—have led some sources to define the oniwabanshū as "ninja".[44] This portrayal is also common in later novels and jidaigeki. However, there is no written link between the earlier shinobi and the later oniwabanshū.

Roles
The ninja were stealth soldiers and mercenaries hired mostly by daimyōs.[45] Their primary roles were those of espionage and sabotage, although assassinations were also attributed to ninja. Although they were considered the anti-samurai and were disdained by those belonging to the samurai class, they were necessary for warfare and were even employed by the samurai themselves to carry out operations that were forbidden by the Bushido.[15]


A page from the Shōninki (1681), detailing a list of possible disguises
In his Buke Myōmokushō, military historian Hanawa Hokinoichi writes of the ninja:

They travelled in disguise to other territories to judge the situation of the enemy, they would inveigle their way into the midst of the enemy to discover gaps, and enter enemy castles to set them on fire, and carried out assassinations, arriving in secret.[46]

Psychological warfare
In battle, the ninja could also be used to cause confusion amongst the enemy.[47] A degree of psychological warfare in the capturing of enemy banners can be seen illustrated in the Ōu Eikei Gunki, composed between the 16th and 17th centuries:

Within Hataya castle there was a glorious shinobi whose skill was renowned, and one night he entered the enemy camp secretly. He took the flag from Naoe Kanetsugu's guard ... and returned and stood it on a high place on the front gate of the castle.[48]

Espionage
Espionage was the chief role of the ninja. With the aid of disguises, the ninja gathered information on enemy terrain and building specifications, as well as obtaining passwords and communiques. The aforementioned supplement to the Nochi Kagami briefly describes the ninja's role in espionage:

Concerning ninja, they were said to be from Iga and Kōga, and went freely into enemy castles in secret. They observed hidden things, and were taken as being friends.[28]

Later in history, the Kōga ninja would become regarded as agents of the Tokugawa bakufu, at a time when the bakufu used the ninja in an intelligence network to monitor regional daimyōs as well as the Imperial court.[24]

Sabotage
Arson was the primary form of sabotage practiced by the ninja, who targeted castles and camps.

The 16th-century diary of abbot Eishun (Tamon-in Nikki) at Tamon-in monastery in Kōfuku-ji describes an arson attack on a castle by men of the Iga clans.

This morning, the sixth day of the 11th month of Tenbun 10, the Iga-shu entered Kasagi castle in secret and set fire to a few of the priests' quarters. They also set fire to outbuildings in various places inside the San-no-maru. They captured the Ichi-no-maru (inner bailey) and the Ni-no-maru.[49]

— Entry: 26th day of the 11th month of the 10th Year of Tenbun (1541)
In 1558, Rokkaku Yoshikata employed a team of ninja to set fire to Sawayama Castle. A chunin captain led a force of 48 ninja into the castle by means of deception. In a technique dubbed bakemono-jutsu ("ghost technique"), his men stole a lantern bearing the enemy's family crest (mon), and proceeded to make replicas with the same mon. By wielding these lanterns, they were allowed to enter the castle without a fight. Once inside, the ninja set fire to the castle, and Yoshitaka's army would later emerge victorious.[50] The mercenary nature of the shinobi is demonstrated in another arson attack soon after the burning of Sawayama Castle. In 1561, commanders acting under Kizawa Nagamasa hired three Iga ninja of genin rank to assist the conquest of a fortress in Maibara. Rokakku Yoshitaka, the same man who had hired Iga ninja just years earlier, was the fortress holder—and target of attack. The Asai Sandaiki writes of their plans: "We employed shinobi-no-mono of Iga. ... They were contracted to set fire to the castle".[51] However, the mercenary shinobi were unwilling to take commands. When the fire attack did not begin as scheduled, the Iga men told the commanders, who were not from the region, that they could not possibly understand the tactics of the shinobi. They then threatened to abandon the operation if they were not allowed to act on their own strategy. The fire was eventually set, allowing Nagamasa's army to capture the fortress in a chaotic rush.[51]

Assassination
The best-known cases of assassination attempts involve famous historical figures. Deaths of famous persons have sometimes been attributed to assassination by ninja, but the secretive natures of these scenarios have made them difficult to prove.[14] Assassins were often identified as ninja later on, but there is no evidence to prove whether some were specially trained for the task or simply a hired thug.


Portrait of Oda Nobunaga, by Jesuit painter Giovanni Niccolò, 1583–1590
The warlord Oda Nobunaga's notorious reputation led to several attempts on his life. In 1571, a Kōga ninja and sharpshooter by the name of Sugitani Zenjubō was hired to assassinate Nobunaga. Using two arquebuses, he fired two consecutive shots at Nobunaga, but was unable to inflict mortal injury through Nobunaga's armor.[52] Sugitani managed to escape, but was caught four years later and put to death by torture.[52] In 1573, Manabe Rokurō, a vassal of daimyō Hatano Hideharu, attempted to infiltrate Azuchi Castle and assassinate the sleeping Nobunaga. However, this also ended in failure, and Manabe was forced to commit suicide, after which his body was openly displayed in public.[52] According to a document, the Iranki, when Nobunaga was inspecting Iga province—which his army had devastated—a group of three ninja shot at him with large-caliber firearms. The shots flew wide of Nobunaga, however, and instead killed seven of his surrounding companions.[53]

The ninja Hachisuka Tenzō was sent by Nobunaga to assassinate the powerful daimyō Takeda Shingen, but ultimately failed in his attempts. Hiding in the shadow of a tree, he avoided being seen under the moonlight, and later concealed himself in a hole he had prepared beforehand, thus escaping capture.[54]

An assassination attempt on Toyotomi Hideyoshi was also thwarted. A ninja named Kirigakure Saizō (possibly Kirigakure Shikaemon) thrust a spear through the floorboards to kill Hideyoshi, but was unsuccessful. He was "smoked out" of his hiding place by another ninja working for Hideyoshi, who apparently used a sort of primitive "flamethrower".[55] Unfortunately, the veracity of this account has been clouded by later fictional publications depicting Saizō as one of the legendary Sanada Ten Braves.

Uesugi Kenshin, the famous daimyō of Echigo Province, was rumored to have been killed by a ninja. The legend credits his death to an assassin who is said to have hidden in Kenshin's lavatory, and fatally injured Kenshin by thrusting a blade or spear into his anus.[56] While historical records showed that Kenshin suffered abdominal problems, modern historians have usually attributed his death to stomach cancer, esophageal cancer or cerebrovascular disease.[57]

Countermeasures
A variety of countermeasures were taken to prevent the activities of the ninja. Precautions were often taken against assassinations, such as weapons concealed in the lavatory, or under a removable floorboard.[58] Buildings were constructed with traps and trip wires attached to alarm bells.[59]

Japanese castles were designed to be difficult to navigate, with winding routes leading to the inner compound. Blind spots and holes in walls provided constant surveillance of these labyrinthine paths, as exemplified in Himeji Castle. Nijō Castle in Kyoto is constructed with long "nightingale" floors, which rested on metal hinges (uguisu-bari) specifically designed to squeak loudly when walked over.[60] Grounds covered with gravel also provided early notice of unwanted intruders, and segregated buildings allowed fires to be better contained.[61]

Training
The skills required of the ninja have come to be known in modern times as ninjutsu (忍術), but it is unlikely they were previously named under a single discipline, but were rather distributed among a variety of covered espionage and survival skills. Some view the ninjutsu as evidence that ninja were not simple mercenaries because the manual did not only include combat training but also provided information about daily needs, which even included mining techniques.[62] The guidance provided for daily work also included elements that enable the ninja to understand the martial qualities of even the most menial task.[62] These factors show how the ninjutsu established among the ninja class the fundamental principle of adaptation.[62]


This diagram from the Bansenshukai uses divination and esoteric cosmology (onmyōdō) to instruct on the ideal time for taking certain actions.
The first specialized training began in the mid-15th century, when certain samurai families started to focus on covert warfare, including espionage and assassination.[63] Like the samurai, ninja were born into the profession, where traditions were kept in, and passed down through the family.[24][64] According to Turnbull, the ninja was trained from childhood, as was also common in samurai families.

Outside the expected martial art disciplines, a youth studied survival and scouting techniques, as well as information regarding poisons and explosives.[65] Physical training was also important, which involved long distance runs, climbing, stealth methods of walking[66] and swimming.[67] A certain degree of knowledge regarding common professions was also required if one was expected to take their form in disguise.[65] Some evidence of medical training can be derived from one account, where an Iga ninja provided first-aid to Ii Naomasa, who was injured by gunfire in the Battle of Sekigahara. Here the ninja reportedly gave Naomasa a "black medicine" meant to stop bleeding.[68]

With the fall of the Iga and Kōga clans, daimyōs could no longer recruit professional ninja, and were forced to train their own shinobi. The shinobi was considered a real profession, as demonstrated in the bakufu's 1649 law on military service, which declared that only daimyōs with an income of over 10,000 koku were allowed to retain shinobi.[69] In the two centuries that followed, a number of ninjutsu manuals were written by descendants of Hattori Hanzō as well as members of the Fujibayashi clan, an offshoot of the Hattori. Major examples include the Ninpiden (1655), the Bansenshukai (1675), and the Shōninki (1681).[7]

Modern schools that claim to train ninjutsu arose from the 1970s, including that of Masaaki Hatsumi (Bujinkan), Stephen K. Hayes (To-Shin Do), and Jinichi Kawakami (Banke Shinobinoden). The lineage and authenticity of these schools are a matter of controversy.

Tactics
The ninja did not always work alone. Teamwork techniques exist: for example, in order to scale a wall, a group of ninja may carry each other on their backs, or provide a human platform to assist an individual in reaching greater heights.[70] The Mikawa Go Fudoki gives an account where a coordinated team of attackers used passwords to communicate. The account also gives a case of deception, where the attackers dressed in the same clothes as the defenders, causing much confusion.[32] When a retreat was needed during the Siege of Osaka, ninja were commanded to fire upon friendly troops from behind, causing the troops to charge backwards in order to attack a perceived enemy. This tactic was used again later on as a method of crowd dispersal.[34]

Most ninjutsu techniques recorded in scrolls and manuals revolve around ways to avoid detection, and methods of escape.[7] These techniques were loosely grouped under corresponding natural elements. Some examples are:

Hitsuke: The practice of distracting guards by starting a fire away from the ninja's planned point of entry. Falls under "fire techniques" (katon-no-jutsu).[71]
Tanuki-gakure: The practice of climbing a tree and camouflaging oneself within the foliage. Falls under "wood techniques" (mokuton-no-jutsu).[71]
Ukigusa-gakure: The practice of throwing duckweed over water in order to conceal underwater movement. Falls under "water techniques" (suiton-no-jutsu).[71]
Uzura-gakure: The practice of curling into a ball and remaining motionless in order to appear like a stone. Falls under "earth techniques" (doton-no-jutsu).[71]
The tactics of the ninja martial art concerning sabotage and assassination was adapted to surprise tactics, i.e. attacking the enemy all of a sudden during the night, either in the bushes or forestland, or endeavouring to stab him in the back in the low corridors and the small Japanese rooms, which thus required short and small weapons and sharp strikes. Ninja in espionage tried to avoid open battlefield with a numerically superior enemy forces, therefore their technique was adapted to stun the enemy and escape in case of failure.


A komusō monk is one of many possible disguises
Disguises
The use of disguises is common and well documented. Disguises came in the form of priests, entertainers, fortune tellers, merchants, rōnin, and monks.[72] The Buke Myōmokushō states,

Shinobi-monomi were people used in secret ways, and their duties were to go into the mountains and disguise themselves as firewood gatherers to discover and acquire the news about an enemy's territory ... they were particularly expert at travelling in disguise.[28]

A mountain ascetic (yamabushi) attire facilitated travel, as they were common and could travel freely between political boundaries. The loose robes of Buddhist priests also allowed concealed weapons, such as the tantō.[73] Minstrel or sarugaku outfits could have allowed the ninja to spy in enemy buildings without rousing suspicion. Disguises as a komusō, a mendicant monk known for playing the shakuhachi, were also effective, as the large "basket" hats traditionally worn by them concealed the head completely.[74]

Ninja ate a vegetarian diet for health reasons. They also avoided foods that caused strong body odor.[75]

Equipment
Ninja utilized a large variety of tools and weaponry, some of which were commonly known, but others were more specialized. Most were tools used in the infiltration of castles. A wide range of specialized equipment is described and illustrated in the 17th-century Bansenshukai,[76] including climbing equipment, extending spears,[68] rocket-propelled arrows,[77] and small collapsible boats.[78]

Outerwear

Antique Japanese gappa (travel cape) and cloth zukin (hood) with kusari (chain armour) concealed underneath.
While the image of a ninja clad in black garb (shinobi shōzoku) is prevalent in popular media, there is no written evidence for such a costume.[79] Instead, it was much more common for the ninja to be disguised as civilians. The popular notion of black clothing is likely rooted in artistic convention; early drawings of ninja showed them dressed in black in order to portray a sense of invisibility.[46] This convention was an idea borrowed from the puppet handlers of bunraku theater, who dressed in total black in an effort to simulate props moving independently of their controls.[80] Despite the lack of hard evidence, it has been put forward by some authorities that black robes, perhaps slightly tainted with red to hide bloodstains, was indeed the sensible garment of choice for infiltration.[46]

Clothing used was similar to that of the samurai, but loose garments (such as leggings) were tucked into trousers or secured with belts. The tenugui, a piece of cloth also used in martial arts, had many functions. It could be used to cover the face, form a belt, or assist in climbing.

The historicity of armor specifically made for ninja cannot be ascertained. While pieces of light armor purportedly worn by ninja exist and date to the right time, there is no hard evidence of their use in ninja operations. Depictions of famous persons later deemed ninja often show them in samurai armor. There were lightweight concealable types of armour made with kusari (chain armour) and small armor plates such as karuta that could have been worn by ninja including katabira (jackets) made with armour hidden between layers of cloth. Shin and arm guards, along with metal-reinforced hoods are also speculated to make up the ninja's armor.[46]

Tools

A page from the Ninpiden, showing a tool for breaking locks.
Tools used for infiltration and espionage are some of the most abundant artifacts related to the ninja. Ropes and grappling hooks were common, and were tied to the belt.[76] A collapsible ladder is illustrated in the Bansenshukai, featuring spikes at both ends to anchor the ladder.[81] Spiked or hooked climbing gear worn on the hands and feet also doubled as weapons.[82] Other implements include chisels, hammers, drills, picks and so forth.

The kunai was a heavy pointed tool, possibly derived from the Japanese masonry trowel, which it closely resembles. Although it is often portrayed in popular culture as a weapon, the kunai was primarily used for gouging holes in walls.[83] Knives and small saws (hamagari) were also used to create holes in buildings, where they served as a foothold or a passage of entry.[84] A portable listening device (saoto hikigane) was used to eavesdrop on conversations and detect sounds.[85]

The mizugumo was a set of wooden shoes supposedly allowing the ninja to walk on water.[78] They were meant to work by distributing the wearer's weight over the shoes' wide bottom surface. The word mizugumo is derived from the native name for the Japanese water spider (Argyroneta aquatica japonica). The mizugumo was featured on the show MythBusters, where it was demonstrated unfit for walking on water. The ukidari, a similar footwear for walking on water, also existed in the form of a round bucket, but was probably quite unstable.[86] Inflatable skins and breathing tubes allowed the ninja to stay underwater for longer periods of time.[87]

Despite the large array of tools available to the ninja, the Bansenshukai warns one not to be overburdened with equipment, stating "a successful ninja is one who uses but one tool for multiple tasks".[88]

Weaponry
Although shorter swords and daggers were used, the katana was probably the ninja's weapon of choice, and was sometimes carried on the back.[74] The katana had several uses beyond normal combat. In dark places, the scabbard could be extended out of the sword, and used as a long probing device.[89] The sword could also be laid against the wall, where the ninja could use the sword guard (tsuba) to gain a higher foothold.[90] The katana could even be used as a device to stun enemies before attacking them, by putting a combination of red pepper, dirt or dust, and iron filings into the area near the top of the scabbard, so that as the sword was drawn the concoction would fly into the enemy's eyes, stunning him until a lethal blow could be made. While straight swords were used before the invention of the katana,[91] the straight ninjatō has no historical precedent and is likely a modern invention.


A pair of kusarigama, on display in Iwakuni Castle
An array of darts, spikes, knives, and sharp, star-shaped discs were known collectively as shuriken. While not exclusive to the ninja,[92] they were an important part of the arsenal, where they could be thrown in any direction.[93] Bows were used for sharpshooting, and some ninjas' bows were intentionally made smaller than the traditional yumi (longbow).[94] The chain and sickle (kusarigama) was also used by the ninja.[95] This weapon consisted of a weight on one end of a chain, and a sickle (kama) on the other. The weight was swung to injure or disable an opponent, and the sickle used to kill at close range. Simple gardening tools such as kunai and sickles were used as weaponry so that, if discovered, a ninja could claim they are his tools and not weapons, despite their ability to be used in battle.

Explosives introduced from China were known in Japan by the time of the Mongol Invasions in the 13th century.[96] Later, explosives such as hand-held bombs and grenades were adopted by the ninja.[87] Soft-cased bombs were designed to release smoke or poison gas, along with fragmentation explosives packed with iron or pottery shrapnel.[70]

Along with common weapons, a large assortment of miscellaneous arms were associated with the ninja. Some examples include poison,[76] makibishi (caltrops),[97] cane swords (shikomizue),[98] land mines,[99] fukiya (blowguns), poisoned darts, acid-spurting tubes, and firearms.[87] The happō, a small eggshell filled with blinding powder (metsubushi), was also used to facilitate escape.[100]

Legendary abilities
Superhuman or supernatural powers were often associated with the ninja. Some legends include flight, invisibility, shapeshifting, the ability to "split" into multiple bodies, the summoning of animals, and control over the five classical elements. These fabulous notions have stemmed from popular imagination regarding the ninja's mysterious status, as well as romantic ideas found in later Japanese art of the Edo period. Magical powers were sometimes rooted in the ninja's own efforts to disseminate fanciful information. For example, Nakagawa Shoshujin, the 17th-century founder of Nakagawa-ryū, claimed in his own writings (Okufuji Monogatari) that he had the ability to transform into birds and animals.[69]

Perceived control over the elements may be grounded in real tactics, which were categorized by association with forces of nature. For example, the practice of starting fires in order to cover a ninja's trail falls under katon-no-jutsu ("fire techniques").[97]


Actor portraying Nikki Danjō, a villain from the kabuki play Sendai Hagi. Shown with hands in a kuji-in seal, which allows him to transform into a giant rat. Woodblock print on paper. Kunisada, 1857.
The ninja's adaption of kites in espionage and warfare is another subject of legends. Accounts exist of ninja being lifted into the air by kites, where they flew over hostile terrain and descended into, or dropped bombs on enemy territory.[78] Kites were indeed used in Japanese warfare, but mostly for the purpose of sending messages and relaying signals.[101] Turnbull suggests that kites lifting a man into midair might have been technically feasible, but states that the use of kites to form a human "hang glider" falls squarely in the realm of fantasy.[102]

Kuji-kiri
Kuji-kiri is an esoteric practice which, when performed with an array of hand "seals" (kuji-in), was meant to allow the ninja to enact superhuman feats.

The kuji ("nine characters") is a concept originating from Taoism, where it was a string of nine words used in charms and incantations.[103] In China, this tradition mixed with Buddhist beliefs, assigning each of the nine words to a Buddhist deity. The kuji may have arrived in Japan via Buddhism,[104] where it flourished within Shugendō.[105] Here too, each word in the kuji was associated with Buddhist deities, animals from Taoist mythology, and later, Shinto kami.[106] The mudrā, a series of hand symbols representing different Buddhas, was applied to the kuji by Buddhists, possibly through the esoteric Mikkyō teachings.[107] The yamabushi ascetics of Shugendō adopted this practice, using the hand gestures in spiritual, healing, and exorcism rituals.[108] Later, the use of kuji passed onto certain bujutsu (martial arts) and ninjutsu schools, where it was said to have many purposes.[109] The application of kuji to produce a desired effect was called "cutting" (kiri) the kuji. Intended effects range from physical and mental concentration, to more incredible claims about rendering an opponent immobile, or even the casting of magical spells.[110] These legends were captured in popular culture, which interpreted the kuji-kiri as a precursor to magical acts.

Foreign ninja
Main article: Foreign ninja
On February 25, 2018, Yamada Yūji, the professor of Mie University and historian Nakanishi Gō announced that they had identified three people who were successful in early modern Ureshino, including the ninja Benkei Musō(弁慶夢想).[111][112] Musō is thought to be the same person as Denrinbō Raikei(伝林坊頼慶), the Chinese disciple of Marume Nagayoshi.[112] It came as a shock when the existence of a foreign samurai was verified by authorities.

Kawasaki Seizō, born in Kilju, Joseon was active as a Japanese spy during the Imjin war. Disguised as a Korean merchant, he infiltrated a heavily guarded Korean fort.[113] As a reward, he was allowed to wear swords and given a salary by his lord, Nabeshima Naoshige, granting him samurai status.[114]

Famous people
Many famous people in Japanese history have been associated or identified as ninja, but their status as ninja are difficult to prove and may be the product of later imagination. Rumors surrounding famous warriors, such as Kusunoki Masashige or Minamoto no Yoshitsune sometimes describe them as ninja, but there is little evidence for these claims. Some well known examples include:


Kumawakamaru escapes his pursuers by swinging across the moat on a bamboo.[115] Woodblock print on paper. Kuniyoshi, 1842–1843.
Kumawakamaru (13th–14th centuries): A youth whose exiled father was ordered to death by the monk Homma Saburō. Kumakawa took his revenge by sneaking into Homma's room while he was asleep, and assassinating him with his own sword.[116]
Yagyū Munetoshi (1529–1606): A renowned swordsman of the Shinkage-ryū school. Muneyoshi's grandson, Jubei Muneyoshi, told tales of his grandfather's status as a ninja.[45]
Hattori Hanzō (1542–1596): A samurai serving under Tokugawa Ieyasu. His ancestry in Iga province, along with ninjutsu manuals published by his descendants have led some sources to define him as a ninja.[117] This depiction is also common in popular culture.
Ishikawa Goemon (1558–1594): Goemon reputedly tried to drip poison from a thread into Oda Nobunaga's mouth through a hiding spot in the ceiling,[118] but many fanciful tales exist about Goemon, and this story cannot be confirmed.
Fūma Kotarō (d. 1603): A ninja rumored to have killed Hattori Hanzō, with whom he was supposedly rivals. The fictional weapon Fūma shuriken is named after him.
Mochizuki Chiyome (16th century): The wife of Mochizuke Moritoki. Chiyome created a school for girls, which taught skills required of geisha, as well as espionage skills.[119]
Momochi Sandayū (16th century): A leader of the Iga ninja clans, who supposedly perished during Oda Nobunaga's attack on Iga province. There is some belief that he escaped death and lived as a farmer in Kii Province.[120] Momochi is also a branch of the Hattori clan.
Fujibayashi Nagato (16th century): Considered to be one of three "greatest" Iga jōnin, the other two being Hattori Hanzō and Momochi Sandayū. Fujibayashi's descendents wrote and edited the Bansenshukai.
Katō Danzō (1503 – 1569): A famed 16th-century ninja master during the Sengoku period who was also known as "Flying Katō".
Tateoka Doshun (16th century): An intermediate-ranking Iga ninja during the Sengoku period.
Karasawa Genba (16th century): A samurai of the Sengoku period, in the 16th century of the common era, who served as an important retainer of the Sanada clan.
In popular culture
Main article: Ninja in popular culture

Jiraiya battles a giant snake with the help of his summoned toad. Woodblock print on paper. Kuniyoshi, c. 1843.
The image of the ninja entered popular culture in the Edo period, when folktales and plays about ninja were conceived. Stories about the ninja are usually based on historical figures. For instance, many similar tales exist about a daimyō challenging a ninja to prove his worth, usually by stealing his pillow or weapon while he slept.[121] Novels were written about the ninja, such as Jiraiya Gōketsu Monogatari, which was also made into a kabuki play. Fictional figures such as Sarutobi Sasuke would eventually make their way into comics and television, where they have come to enjoy a culture hero status outside their original mediums.

Ninja appear in many forms of Japanese and Western popular media, including books (Kōga Ninpōchō), television (Ninja Warrior), animation (Ninjago: Masters of Spinjitzu), movies (Ninja Assassin), video games (Sekiro: Shadows Die Twice, Tenchu, Shinobi), anime (Naruto, Ninja Scroll), manga (Basilisk) and American comic books (Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles). From ancient Japan to the modern world media, popular depictions range from the realistic to the fantastically exaggerated, both fundamentally and aesthetically.

Gallery

Tekko-kagi, hand claws



Ashiko, iron climbing cleats



Ashiko, iron climbing cleats



Kaginawa, iron climbing hook



Shikomizue, a cane sword



Makibishi, iron caltrops



Bo-shuriken, throwing darts


Bo-shuriken, with linen flights



Chigriki, chain and weight weapons



Kusarigama, a chain and sickle



Manriki, a chain weapon



Various concealable weapons



Chainmail shirt (Kusari katabira)

See also
flag Japan portal
Hitokiri
Hashashin
Sicarii
Footnotes
Kawakami, pp=21–22
Turnbull 2003, pp. 5–6
Stephen Turnbull (19 February 2003). Ninja Ad 1460-1650. Osprey Publishing. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-84176-525-9. Archived from the original on 6 May 2012. Retrieved 1 October 2011.
Crowdy 2006, p. 50
Frederic 2002, p. 715
Green 2001, p. 355
Green 2001, p. 358; based on different readings, Ninpiden is also known as Shinobi Hiden, and Bansenshukai can also be Mansenshukai.
Origin of word Ninja Archived 2011-05-02 at the Wayback Machine.
Takagi, Gomi & Ōno 1962, p. 191; the full poem is "Yorozu yo ni / Kokoro ha tokete / Waga seko ga / Tsumishi te mitsutsu / Shinobi kanetsumo".
Satake et al. 2003, p. 108; the Man'yōgana used for "shinobi" is 志乃備, its meaning and characters are unrelated to the later mercenary shinobi.
吉丸雄哉（associate professor of Mie University) (April 2017). "くのいちとは何か". In 吉丸雄哉、山田雄司　編 (ed.). 忍者の誕生. 勉誠出版. ISBN 978-4-585-22151-7.
Turnbull 2003, p. 6
Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed.; American Heritage Dictionary, 4th ed.; Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).
Turnbull 2003, p. 5
Axelrod, Alan (2015). Mercenaries: A Guide to Private Armies and Private Military Companies. Washington, D.C.: CQ Press. ISBN 9781483364674.
Turnbull 2007, p. 144.
Waterhouse 1996, pp. 34
Chamberlain 2005, pp. 249–253; Volume 2, section 80
Ratti & Westbrook 1991, p. 325
Friday 2007, pp. 58–60
Turnbull 2003, p. 7
Turnbull 2003, p. 9
Ratti & Westbrook 1991, p. 324
Ratti & Westbrook 1991, p. 327
Draeger & Smith 1981, p. 121
Deal 2007, p. 165
Turnbull 2003, p. 23
Turnbull 2003, p. 27
Green 2001, p. 357
Turnbull 2003, pp. 9–10
Adams 1970, p. 43
Turnbull 2003, pp. 44–46
Turnbull 2003, p. 47
Turnbull 2003, p. 50
Turnbull 2003, p. 55
Turnbull 2003, p. 51
Turnbull 2003, p. 52
Turnbull 2003, p. 53
Turnbull 2003, p. 54
Turnbull 2003, pp. 54–55
Morton & Olenik 2004, p. 122
Crowdy 2006, p. 52
Tatsuya 1991, p. 443
Kawaguchi 2008, p. 215
Turnbull 2003, p. 29
Turnbull 2003, p. 17; Turnbull uses the name Buke Meimokushō, an alternate reading for the same title. The Buke Myōmokushō cited here is a much more common reading.
Turnbull 2003, p. 42
Turnbull 2007, p. 149
Turnbull 2003, p. 28
Turnbull 2003, p. 43
Turnbull 2003, pp. 43–44
Turnbull 2003, p. 31
Turnbull 2003, pp. 31–32
Turnbull 2003, p. 30
Turnbull 2003, p. 32
Nihon Hakugaku Kurabu 2006, p. 36
Nihon Hakugaku Kurabu 2004, pp. 51–53; Turnbull 2003, p. 32
Turnbull 2003, p. 26
Draeger & Smith 1981, pp. 128–129
Turnbull 2003, pp. 29–30
Fiévé & Waley 2003, p. 116
Zoughari, Kacem (2010). Ninja: Ancient Shadow Warriors of Japan (The Secret History of Ninjutsu). North Clarendon, VT: Tuttle Publishing. p. 47. ISBN 9780804839273.
Turnbull 2003, p. 12
Turnbull, Stephen (2012). Ninja AD 1460–1650. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. p. 9. ISBN 9781782002567.
Turnbull 2003, pp. 14–15
Green 2001, pp. 359–360
Deal 2007, p. 156
Turnbull 2003, p. 48
Turnbull 2003, p. 13
Turnbull 2003, p. 22
Draeger & Smith 1981, p. 125
Crowdy 2006, p. 51
Deal 2007, p. 161
Turnbull 2003, p. 18
"Iga-ryu Ninjutsu | What is a Ninja? | Ninja Museum of Igaryu". www.iganinja.jp. Archived from the original on 2017-12-18. Retrieved 2017-12-10.
Turnbull 2003, p. 19
Turnbull 2003, p. 60
Draeger & Smith 1981, p. 128
Turnbull 2003, p. 16
Howell 1999, p. 211
Turnbull 2003, p. 20
Mol 2003, p. 121
Turnbull 2003, p. 61
Turnbull 2003, pp. 20–21
Turnbull 2003, p. 21
Turnbull 2003, p. 62
Ratti & Westbrook 1991, p. 329
Green 2001, p. 359
Adams 1970, p. 52
Adams 1970, p. 49
Reed 1880, pp. 269–270
Mol 2003, p. 119
Ratti & Westbrook 1991, pp. 328–329
Ratti & Westbrook 1991, p. 328
Adams 1970, p. 55
Bunch & Hellemans 2004, p. 161
Mol 2003, p. 176
Mol 2003, p. 195
Draeger & Smith 1981, p. 127
Mol 2003, p. 124
Buckley 2002, p. 257
Turnbull 2003, pp. 22–23
Waterhouse 1996, pp. 2–3
Waterhouse 1996, pp. 8–11
Waterhouse 1996, p. 13
Waterhouse 1996, pp. 24–27
Waterhouse 1996, pp. 24–25
Teeuwen & Rambelli 2002, p. 327
Waterhouse 1996, pp. 31–33
Adams 1970, p. 29; Waterhouse 1996, p. 31
"嬉野に忍者３人いた！　江戸初期－幕末　市が委託調査氏名も特定". Archived from the original on 2018-08-20. Retrieved 2018-08-20.
"嬉野忍者調査結果　弁慶夢想 （べんけいむそう） 【武術家・山伏 / 江戸時代初期】". Archived from the original on 2019-02-14. Retrieved 2018-08-20.
"文化遺産オンライン　御用唐人町荒物唐物屋職御由緒書". Archived from the original on 2018-11-24. Retrieved 2018-11-24.
『唐人町の由来』碑
McCullough 2004, p. 49
McCullough 2004, p. 48
Adams 1970, p. 34
Adams 1970, p. 160
Green 2001, p. 671
Adams 1970, p. 42
Turnbull 2003, p. 14
References
Adams, Andrew (1970), Ninja: The Invisible Assassins, Black Belt Communications, ISBN 978-0-89750-030-2
Buckley, Sandra (2002), Encyclopedia of contemporary Japanese culture, Taylor & Francis, ISBN 978-0-415-14344-8
Bunch, Bryan H.; Hellemans, Alexander (2004), The history of science and technology: a browser's guide to the great discoveries, inventions, and the people who made them, from the dawn of time to today, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, ISBN 978-0-618-22123-3
Chamberlain, Basil Hall (2005), The Kojiki: records of ancient matters, Tuttle Publishing, ISBN 978-0-8048-3675-3
Crowdy, Terry (2006), The enemy within: a history of espionage, Osprey Publishing, ISBN 978-1-84176-933-2
Deal, William E. (2007), Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-195331264
Draeger, Donn F.; Smith, Robert W. (1981), Comprehensive Asian fighting arts, Kodansha, ISBN 978-0-87011-436-6
Fiévé, Nicolas; Waley, Paul (2003), Japanese capitals in historical perspective: place, power and memory in Kyoto, Edo and Tokyo, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-7007-1409-4
Friday, Karl F. (2007), The first samurai: the life and legend of the warrior rebel, Taira Masakado, Wiley, ISBN 978-0-471-76082-5
Howell, Anthony (1999), The analysis of performance art: a guide to its theory and practice, Routledge, ISBN 978-90-5755-085-0
Green, Thomas A. (2001), Martial arts of the world: an encyclopedia, Volume 2: Ninjutsu, ABC-CLIO, ISBN 978-1-57607-150-2
Kawaguchi, Sunao (2008), Super Ninja Retsuden, PHP Research Institute, ISBN 978-4-569-67073-7
Kawakami, Jin'ichi (2016), Ninja no okite, Kadokawa, ISBN 978-4-04-082106-1
McCullough, Helen Craig (2004), The Taiheiki: A Chronicle of Medieval Japan, Tuttle Publishing, ISBN 978-0-8048-3538-1
Mol, Serge (2003), Classical weaponry of Japan: special weapons and tactics of the martial arts, Kodansha, ISBN 978-4-7700-2941-6
Morton, William Scott; Olenik, J. Kenneth (2004), Japan: its history and culture, fourth edition, McGraw-Hill Professional, ISBN 978-0-07-141280-3
Nihon Hakugaku Kurabu (2006), Unsolved Mysteries of Japanese History, PHP Research Institute, ISBN 978-4-569-65652-6
Nihon Hakugaku Kurabu (2004), Zuketsu Rekishi no Igai na Ketsumatsu, PHP Research Institute, ISBN 978-4-569-64061-7
Perkins, Dorothy (1991), Encyclopedia of Japan: Japanese History and Culture, from Abacus to Zori, Facts on File, ISBN 978-0-8160-1934-2
Ratti, Oscar; Westbrook, Adele (1991), Secrets of the samurai: a survey of the martial arts of feudal Japan, Tuttle Publishing, ISBN 978-0-8048-1684-7
Reed, Edward James (1880), Japan: its history, traditions, and religions: With the narrative of a visit in 1879, Volume 2, John Murray, OCLC 1309476
Satake, Akihiro; Yasumada, Hideo; Kudō, Rikio; Ōtani, Masao; Yamazaki, Yoshiyuki (2003), Shin Nihon Koten Bungaku Taikei: Man'yōshū Volume 4, Iwanami Shoten, ISBN 4-00-240004-2
Takagi, Ichinosuke; Gomi, Tomohide; Ōno, Susumu (1962), Nihon Koten Bungaku Taikei: Man'yōshū Volume 4, Iwanami Shoten, ISBN 4-00-060007-9
Tatsuya, Tsuji (1991), The Cambridge history of Japan Volume 4: Early Modern Japan: Chapter 9, translated by Harold Bolitho, edited by John Whitney Hall, New York: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-22355-3
Teeuwen, Mark; Rambelli, Fabio (2002), Buddhas and kami in Japan: honji suijaku as a combinatory paradigm, RoutledgeCurzon, ISBN 978-0-415-29747-9
Turnbull, Stephen (2003), Ninja AD 1460–1650, Osprey Publishing, ISBN 978-1-84176-525-9
Turnbull, Stephen (2007), Warriors of Medieval Japan, Osprey Publishing, ISBN 978-1-84603-220-2
Waterhouse, David (1996), Religion in Japan: arrows to heaven and earth, article 1: Notes on the kuji, edited by Peter F. Kornicki and James McMullen, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-55028-4
Frederic, Louis (2002), Japan Encyclopedia, Belknap Harvard, ISBN 0-674-01753-6
Further reading
Fujibayashi, Masatake; Nakajima, Atsumi. (1996). Shōninki: Ninjutsu densho. Tokyo: Shinjinbutsu Ōraisha. OCLC 222455224.
Fujita, Seiko. (2004). Saigo no Ninja Dorondoron. Tokyo: Shinpūsha. ISBN 978-4-7974-9488-4.
Fukai, Masaumi. (1992). Edojō oniwaban : Tokugawa Shōgun no mimi to me. Tokyo: Chūō Kōronsha. ISBN 978-4-12-101073-5.
Hokinoichi, Hanawa. (1923–1933). Buke Myōmokushō. Tokyo: Yoshikawa Kōbunkan. OCLC 42921561.
Ishikawa, Masatomo. (1982). Shinobi no sato no kiroku. Tokyo: Suiyōsha. ISBN 978-4-88066-110-0.
Mol, Serge (2016). Takeda Shinobi Hiden: Unveiling Takeda Shingen's Secret Ninja Legacy. Eibusha. pp. 1–192. ISBN 978-90-813361-3-0.
Mol, Serge (2008). Invisible armor: An Introduction to the Esoteric Dimension of Japan’s Classical Warrior Arts. Eibusha. pp. 1–160. ISBN 978-90-8133610-9.
Nawa, Yumio. (1972). Hisshō no heihō ninjutsu no kenkyū: gendai o ikinuku michi. Tokyo: Nichibō Shuppansha. OCLC 122985441.
Nawa. Yumio. (1967). Shinobi no buki. Tokyo: Jinbutsu Ōraisha. OCLC 22358689.
Okuse, Heishichirō. (1967). Ninjutsu: sono rekishi to ninja. Tokyo: Jinbutsu Ōraisha. OCLC 22727254.
Okuse, Heishichirō. (1964). Ninpō: sono hiden to jitsurei. Tokyo: Jinbutsu Ōraisha. OCLC 51008989.
Turnbull, Stephen (2017). Ninja: Unmasking the Myth. Barnsley, S. Yorkshire, UK: Frontline Books. ISBN 9781473850422.
Watatani, Kiyoshi. (1972). Bugei ryūha hyakusen. Tokyo: Akita Shoten. OCLC 66598671.
Yamaguchi, Masayuki. (1968). Ninja no seikatsu. Tokyo: Yūzankaku. OCLC 20045825.
External links
Media related to Ninja at Wikimedia Commons
vte
Japanese weapons, armour and equipment
Swords
Chokutō Dōtanuki Guntō Katana Kodachi Ninjatō Ōdachi Shikomizue Tachi Tsurugi Uchigatana Wakizashi Zanbatō
Construction
Glossary Horimono Sword mountings Sword polishing Swordsmithing Tameshigiri
Knives and daggers
Kabutowari Kaiken Kunai Tantō Yoroi-dōshi
Polearms and spears
Bisento Hoko yari Kama-yari Nagamaki Naginata Sasumata Sodegarami Torimono sandōgu Tsukubō Yari
Practice weapons
Bokken Iaitō Shinai Shinken Suburitō Tanren bō
Armour
Auxiliary armours Bōgu Dō Dō-maru Haramaki Kabuto Karuta Kikko Kusari Men-yoroi Ō-yoroi Sangu Tatami
Types
Brigandine Lame Lamellar Laminar Mail Plate Mail and plate armour Scale
Clothing
Fundoshi Hakama Kyahan Shitagi Tabi Uwa-obi Waraji
Samurai accoutrements
Abumi Daishō Horo Kaginawa Kate-bukuro Kubi bukuro Kura Uchi-bukuro Yebira
Chain and rope weapons
Chigiriki Kusarigama Kusari-fundo Kyoketsu-shoge Jōhyō
Clubs and truncheons
Hachiwari Jitte Kanabō Tekkan Tessen
Staff weapons
Bō Hanbō Jō Tanbō Yubi-bo
Projectile and throwing weapons
Artillery Fukiya Makibishi Oyumi Shuriken Ya Yumi
Firearms and guns
Bajō-zutsu Bo-hiya Tanegashima
Other weapons
Kama Metsubushi Ono Ōtsuchi Shobo Suntetsu
Signal devices
Gunbai Hata-jirushi Horagai Kabura-ya Nobori Saihai Sashimono Uma-jirushi
Users
Ashigaru Edo period police Kunoichi Ninja Onna-bugeisha Rōnin Samurai Sōhei Yamabushi
Japanese armour Weapons of Japan Japanese swords National Treasure swords Military equipment of Japan
Authority control Edit this at Wikidata
NDL: 01090687
Categories: NinjaCombat occupationsJapanese warriorsJapanese words and phrasesMercenary units and formationsObsolete occupations
Navigation menu
Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadView sourceView historySearch
Search Wikipedia
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version

Languages
Català
Español
Македонски
日本語
Suomi
Svenska
اردو
ייִדיש
中文
58 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 10 July 2019, at 04:49 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewWikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki

[Freddie]

Tokugawa shogunate
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
Find sources: "Tokugawa shogunate" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Tokugawa Shogunate
徳川幕府
Edo Bakufu
江戸幕府
1603–1867
Flag of Tokugawa Shogunate
Flag
{{{coat_alt}}}
Emblem
Location of Tokugawa Shogunate
Capital Edo, Musashi Province
(Shōgun's residence)
Heian-kyō
(Emperor's palace)
Common languages Early Modern Japanese
Religion Shinbutsu-shūgō
Government Monarchic feudal stratocracy
Emperor
• 1600–1611
Go-Yōzei[1]
• 1867–1868
Meiji[2]
Shōgun
• 1603–1605
Tokugawa Ieyasu
• 1866–1867
Tokugawa Yoshinobu
Rōjū
• 1600–1614
Ōkubo Tadachika
• 1868
Tachibana Taneyuki
Historical era Edo period
• Battle of Sekigahara
21 October 1603
• Siege of Osaka
8 November 1614
• Sakoku Edict
1635
• Convention of Kanagawa
31 March 1854
• Treaty of Amity and Commerce
29 July 1858
• Meiji Restoration
3 January 1867
Currency The tri-metallic Tokugawa coinage system based on copper Mon, silver Bu and Shu, as well as gold Ryō.
Preceded by Succeeded by
Azuchi–Momoyama period
Tokugawa clan
Empire of Japan
Today part of Japan
History of Japan
NikkoYomeimon5005.jpg
Nikkō Tōshō-gū
List[show]
Topics[show]
Glossary History Timeline
vte
The Tokugawa Shogunate, also known as the Tokugawa Bakufu (徳川幕府) and the Edo Bakufu (江戸幕府), was the last feudal Japanese military government, which existed between 1603 and 1867.[3] The head of government was the shōgun,[4] and each was a member of the Tokugawa clan.[5] The Tokugawa shogunate ruled from Edo Castle and the years of the shogunate became known as the Edo period.[6] This time is also called the Tokugawa period[3] or pre-modern (Kinsei (近世)).[7]


Contents
1 History
2 Government
2.1 Shogunate and domains
2.2 Relations with the Emperor
2.3 Shogun and foreign trade
2.4 Shogun and Christianity
3 Institutions of the shogunate
3.1 Rōjū and wakadoshiyori
3.2 Ōmetsuke and metsuke
3.3 San-bugyō
3.4 Tenryō, gundai and daikan
3.5 Gaikoku bugyō
4 Late Tokugawa shogunate (1853–1867)
5 List of Tokugawa shōguns
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
History
See also: Bakumatsu
Following the Sengoku period ("warring states period"), the central government had been largely re-established by Oda Nobunaga during the Azuchi–Momoyama period. After the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, central authority fell to Tokugawa Ieyasu.[3]

Society in the Tokugawa period, unlike in previous shogunates, was supposedly based on the strict class hierarchy originally established by Toyotomi Hideyoshi. The daimyō (lords) were at the top, followed by the warrior-caste of samurai, with the farmers, artisans, and traders ranking below. In some parts of the country, particularly smaller regions, daimyō and samurai were more or less identical, since daimyō might be trained as samurai, and samurai might act as local rulers. Otherwise, the largely inflexible nature of this social stratification system unleashed disruptive forces over time. Taxes on the peasantry were set at fixed amounts that did not account for inflation or other changes in monetary value. As a result, the tax revenues collected by the samurai landowners were worth less and less over time. This often led to numerous confrontations between noble but impoverished samurai and well-to-do peasants, ranging from simple local disturbances to much larger rebellions. None, however, proved compelling enough to seriously challenge the established order until the arrival of foreign powers.

A 2017 study found that peasant rebellions and collective desertion ("flight") lowered tax rates and inhibited state growth in the Tokugawa shogunate.[8]

In the mid-19th century, an alliance of several of the more powerful daimyō, along with the titular Emperor, succeeded in overthrowing the shogunate after the Boshin War, culminating in the Meiji Restoration. The Tokugawa shogunate came to an official end in 1868 with the resignation of the 15th Tokugawa shōgun Tokugawa Yoshinobu, leading to the "restoration" (王政復古, Ōsei fukko) of imperial rule. Notwithstanding its eventual overthrow in favor of the more modernized, less feudal form of governance of the Meiji Restoration, the Tokugawa shogunate oversaw the longest period of peace and stability in Japan's history, lasting well over 260 years.

Government
Shogunate and domains
The bakuhan taisei (幕藩体制) was the feudal political system in the Edo period of Japan. Baku is an abbreviation of bakufu, meaning "military government"—that is, the shogunate. The han were the domains headed by daimyō.

Vassals held inherited lands and provided military service and homage to their lords. The bakuhan taisei split feudal power between the shogunate in Edo and provincial domains throughout Japan. Provinces had a degree of sovereignty and were allowed an independent administration of the han in exchange for loyalty to the shōgun, who was responsible for foreign relations and national security. The shōgun and lords were all daimyōs: feudal lords with their own bureaucracies, policies, and territories. The shōgun also administered the most powerful han, the hereditary fief of the House of Tokugawa. Each level of government administered its own system of taxation.


Edo Castle, 17th century
The emperor, nominally a religious leader, held no real power; this was vested in the shōgun. The shogunate had the power to discard, annex, and transform domains. The sankin-kōtai system of alternative residence required each daimyō to reside in alternate years between the han and the court in Edo. During their absences from Edo, it was also required that they leave family as hostages until their return. The huge expenditure sankin-kōtai imposed on each han helped centralize aristocratic alliances and ensured loyalty to the shōgun as each representative doubled as a potential hostage.

Tokugawa's descendants further ensured loyalty by maintaining a dogmatic insistence on loyalty to the shōgun. Fudai daimyō were hereditary vassals of Ieyasu, as well as of his descendants. Tozama ("outsiders") became vassals of Ieyasu after the Battle of Sekigahara. Shinpan ("relatives") were collaterals of Tokugawa Hidetada. Early in the Edo period, the shogunate viewed the tozama as the least likely to be loyal; over time, strategic marriages and the entrenchment of the system made the tozama less likely to rebel. In the end, it was the great tozama of Satsuma, Chōshū and Tosa, and to a lesser extent Hizen, that brought down the shogunate. These four states are called the Four Western Clans, or Satchotohi for short.[9]

The number of han (roughly 250) fluctuated throughout the Edo period. They were ranked by size, which was measured as the number of koku of rice that the domain produced each year. One koku was the amount of rice necessary to feed one adult male for one year. The minimum number for a daimyō was ten thousand koku; the largest, apart from the shōgun, was a million.

Relations with the Emperor

Social class during the Shogunate with the Emperor as the nominal ruler
Regardless of the political title of the Emperor, the shōguns of the Tokugawa family controlled Japan.[10] The administration (体制 taisei) of Japan was a task given by the Imperial Court in Kyoto to the Tokugawa family, which returned to the court in the Meiji Restoration. While the Emperor officially had the prerogative of appointing the shōgun, he had virtually no say in state affairs. The shogunate appointed a liaison, the Kyoto Shoshidai (Shogun's Representative in Kyoto), to deal with the Emperor, court and nobility.

Towards the end of the shogunate, however, after centuries of the Emperor having very little say in state affairs and being secluded in his Kyoto palace, and in the wake of the reigning shōgun, Tokugawa Iemochi, marrying the sister of Emperor Kōmei (r. 1846–1867), in 1862, the Imperial Court in Kyoto began to enjoy increased political influence.[11] The Emperor would occasionally be consulted on various policies and the shogun even made a visit to Kyoto to visit the Emperor.

Shogun and foreign trade

Dutch trading post in Dejima, c. 1805
Foreign affairs and trade were monopolized by the shogunate, yielding a huge profit. Foreign trade was also permitted to the Satsuma and the Tsushima domains. Rice was the main trading product of Japan during this time. Isolationism was the foreign policy of Japan and trade was strictly controlled. Merchants were outsiders to the social hierarchy of Japan and were thought to be greedy.

The visits of the Nanban ships from Portugal were at first the main vector of trade exchanges, followed by the addition of Dutch, English and sometimes Spanish ships.

From 1603 onward, Japan started to participate actively in foreign trade. In 1615, an embassy and trade mission under Hasekura Tsunenaga was sent across the Pacific to Nueva España (New Spain) on the Japanese-built galleon San Juan Bautista. Until 1635, the Shogun issued numerous permits for the so-called "red seal ships" destined for the Asian trade.

After 1635 and the introduction of Seclusion laws, inbound ships were only allowed from China, Korea, and the Netherlands.

Shogun and Christianity
Main article: Kirishitan

Christian prisoners in Edo, 17th century
Followers of Christianity first began appearing in Japan during the 16th century. Oda Nobunaga embraced Christianity and the Western technology that was imported with it, such as the musket. He also saw it as a tool he could use to suppress Buddhist forces.[12]

Though Christianity was allowed to grow until the 1610s, Tokugawa Ieyasu soon began to see it as a growing threat to the stability of the shogunate. As Ōgosho ("Cloistered Shōgun"),[13] he influenced the implementation of laws that banned the practice of Christianity. His successors followed suit, compounding upon Ieyasu's laws. The ban of Christianity is often linked with the creation of the Seclusion laws, or Sakoku, in the 1630s.[14]

Institutions of the shogunate
Rōjū and wakadoshiyori
The rōjū (老中) were the senior members of the shogunate. They supervised the ōmetsuke, machi-bugyō, ongokubugyō (ja:遠国奉行) and other officials, oversaw relations with the Imperial Court in Kyoto, kuge (members of the nobility), daimyō, Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines, and attended to matters like divisions of fiefs. Normally, four or five men held the office, and one was on duty for a month at a time on a rotating basis. They conferred on especially important matters. In the administrative reforms of 1867 (Keiō Reforms), the office was eliminated in favor of a bureaucratic system with ministers for the interior, finance, foreign relations, army, and navy.


Sakuradamon Gate of Edo Castle where Ii Naosuke was assassinated in 1860
In principle, the requirements for appointment to the office of rōjū were to be a fudai daimyō and to have a fief assessed at 50000 koku or more. However, there were exceptions to both criteria. Many appointees came from the offices close to the shōgun, such as soba yōnin (ja:側用人), Kyoto Shoshidai, and Osaka jōdai.

Irregularly, the shōguns appointed a rōjū to the position of tairō (great elder). The office was limited to members of the Ii, Sakai, Doi, and Hotta clans, but Yanagisawa Yoshiyasu was given the status of tairō as well. Among the most famous was Ii Naosuke, who was assassinated in 1860 outside the Sakuradamon Gate of Edo Castle (Sakuradamon incident).

The wakadoshiyori were next in status below the rōjū. An outgrowth of the early six-man rokuninshū (六人衆, 1633–1649), the office took its name and final form in 1662, but with four members. Their primary responsibility was management of the affairs of the hatamoto and gokenin, the direct vassals of the shōgun.

Some shōguns appointed a soba yōnin. This person acted as a liaison between the shōgun and the rōjū. The soba yōnin increased in importance during the time of the fifth shōgun Tokugawa Tsunayoshi, when a wakadoshiyori, Inaba Masayasu, assassinated Hotta Masatoshi, the tairō. Fearing for his personal safety, Tsunayoshi moved the rōjū to a more distant part of the castle. Some of the most famous soba yōnin were Yanagisawa Yoshiyasu and Tanuma Okitsugu.

Ōmetsuke and metsuke
The ōmetsuke and metsuke were officials who reported to the rōjū and wakadoshiyori. The five ōmetsuke were in charge of monitoring the affairs of the daimyōs, kuge and imperial court. They were in charge of discovering any threat of rebellion. Early in the Edo period, daimyōs such as Yagyū Munefuyu held the office. Soon, however, it fell to hatamoto with rankings of 5,000 koku or more. To give them authority in their dealings with daimyōs, they were often ranked at 10,000 koku and given the title of kami (an ancient title, typically signifying the governor of a province) such as Bizen-no-kami.

As time progressed, the function of the ōmetsuke evolved into one of passing orders from the shogunate to the daimyōs, and of administering to ceremonies within Edo Castle. They also took on additional responsibilities such as supervising religious affairs and controlling firearms. The metsuke, reporting to the wakadoshiyori, oversaw the affairs of the vassals of the shōgun. They were the police force for the thousands of hatamoto and gokenin who were concentrated in Edo. Individual han had their own metsuke who similarly policed their samurai.

San-bugyō
The san-bugyō ("three administrators") were the jisha, kanjō, and machi-bugyō, which oversaw temples and shrines, accounting, and the cities, respectively. The jisha-bugyō had the highest status of the three. They oversaw the administration of Buddhist temples (ji) and Shinto shrines (sha), many of which held fiefs. Also, they heard lawsuits from several land holdings outside the eight Kantō provinces. The appointments normally went to daimyōs; Ōoka Tadasuke was an exception, though he later became a daimyō.

The kanjō-bugyō were next in status. The four holders of this office reported to the rōjū. They were responsible for the finances of the shogunate.[15]

The machi-bugyō were the chief city administrators of Edo and other cities. Their roles included mayor, chief of the police (and, later, also of the fire department), and judge in criminal and civil matters not involving samurai. Two (briefly, three) men, normally hatamoto, held the office, and alternated by month.

Three Edo machi bugyō have become famous through jidaigeki (period films): Ōoka Tadasuke and Tōyama Kagemoto (Kinshirō) as heroes, and Torii Yōzō (ja:鳥居耀蔵) as a villain.

Tenryō, gundai and daikan
The san-bugyō together sat on a council called the hyōjōsho. In this capacity, they were responsible for administering the tenryō, supervising the gundai (郡代), the daikan (代官) and the kura bugyō (蔵奉行), as well as hearing cases involving samurai.

The shogun directly held lands in various parts of Japan. These were known as shihaisho (支配所); since the Meiji period, the term tenryō (天領, "Emperor's land") has become synonymous.[16] In addition to the territory that Ieyasu held prior to the Battle of Sekigahara, this included lands he gained in that battle and lands gained as a result of the Summer and Winter Sieges of Osaka. By the end of the seventeenth century, the shogun's landholdings had reached four million koku. Such major cities as Nagasaki and Osaka, and mines, including the Sado gold mine, also fell into this category.

Gaikoku bugyō
The gaikoku bugyō were administrators appointed between 1858 and 1868. They were charged with overseeing trade and diplomatic relations with foreign countries, and were based in the treaty ports of Nagasaki and Kanagawa (Yokohama).

Late Tokugawa shogunate (1853–1867)
Main article: Bakumatsu

Samurai of the Shimazu clan
The late Tokugawa shogunate (Japanese: 幕末 Bakumatsu) was the period between 1853 and 1867, during which Japan ended its isolationist foreign policy called sakoku and modernized from a feudal shogunate to the Meiji government. It is at the end of the Edo period and preceded the Meiji era. The major ideological and political factions during this period were divided into the pro-imperialist Ishin Shishi (nationalist patriots) and the shogunate forces, including the elite shinsengumi ("newly selected corps") swordsmen.

Although these two groups were the most visible powers, many other factions attempted to use the chaos of the Bakumatsu era to seize personal power.[17] Furthermore, there were two other main driving forces for dissent; first, growing resentment of tozama daimyōs, and second, growing anti-Western sentiment following the arrival of Matthew C. Perry. The first related to those lords who had fought against Tokugawa forces at Sekigahara (in 1600) and had from that point on been exiled permanently from all powerful positions within the shogunate. The second was to be expressed in the phrase sonnō jōi ("revere the Emperor, expel the barbarians"). The end for the Bakumatsu was the Boshin War, notably the Battle of Toba–Fushimi, when pro-shogunate forces were defeated.[18]

List of Tokugawa shōguns
# Picture Name
(Born-Died) Shōgun From Shōgun Until
1 Tokugawa Ieyasu2 full.JPG Tokugawa Ieyasu
(1543–1616) 1603 1605
2 Hidetada2.jpg Tokugawa Hidetada
(1579–1632) 1605 1623
3 Iemitu.jpg Tokugawa Iemitsu
(1604–1651) 1623 1651
4 Tokugawa Ietsuna.jpg Tokugawa Ietsuna
(1641–1680) 1651 1680
5 Tsunyaoshi.jpg Tokugawa Tsunayoshi
(1646–1709) 1680 1709
6 Tokugawa Ienobu.jpg Tokugawa Ienobu
(1662–1712) 1709 1712
7 Tokugawa ietsugu.jpg Tokugawa Ietsugu
(1709–1716) 1713 1716
8 Tokugawa Yoshimune.jpg Tokugawa Yoshimune
(1684–1751) 1716 1745
9 Tokugawa Ieshige.jpg Tokugawa Ieshige
(1712–1761) 1745 1760
10 Tokugawa Ieharu.jpg Tokugawa Ieharu
(1737–1786) 1760 1786
11 Tokugawa Ienari.jpg Tokugawa Ienari
(1773–1841) 1787 1837
12 Tokugawa Ieyoshi.JPG Tokugawa Ieyoshi
(1793–1853) 1837 1853
13 Tokugawa Iesada by Kawamura Kiyoo (Tokugawa Memorial Foundation).jpeg Tokugawa Iesada
(1824–1858) 1853 1858
14 Tokugawa Iemochi by Kawamura Kiyoo (Tokugawa Memorial Foundation).jpg Tokugawa Iemochi
(1846–1866) 1858 1866
15 Tokugawa Yoshinobu by Kawamura Kiyoo.jpg Tokugawa Yoshinobu
(1837–1913) 1866 1867
Over the course of the Edo period, influential relatives of the shogun included:

Tokugawa Mitsukuni of the Mito Domain[19]
Tokugawa Nariaki of the Mito Domain[20]
Tokugawa Mochiharu of the Hitotsubashi branch
Tokugawa Munetake of the Tayasu branch.[21]
Matsudaira Katamori of the Aizu branch.[22]
Matsudaira Sadanobu, born into the Tayasu branch, adopted into the Hisamatsu-Matsudaira of Shirakawa.[23]
See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tokugawa shogunate.
Keian uprising
Notes
Emperor Go-Yōzei started reigning in 1586, after the abdication of Emperor Ōgimachi.
Emperor Meiji reigned until his death in 1912.
Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric. (2005). "Tokugawa-jidai" in Japan Encyclopedia, p. 978.
Nussbaum, "Shogun" at pp. 878–879.
Nussbaum, "Tokugawa" at p. 976.
Nussbaum, "Edo-jidai" at p. 167.
Nussbaum, "Kinsei" at p. 525.
Paik, Christopher; Steele, Abbey; Tanaka, Seiki (2017). "Constraining the Samurai: Rebellion and Taxation in Early Modern Japan". International Studies Quarterly. 61 (2): 352–370. doi:10.1093/isq/sqx008.
Nussbaum, "Satchotohi", pp. 826–827.
Jansen 2002, pp. 144–148.
Keene, Donald Emperor of Japan: Meiji and His World, 1852–1912 (2005, Columbia University Press) p. 62
Chie Nakane and Shinzaburou Oishi (1990). Tokugawa Japan – The Social and Economic Antecedents of Modern Japan. University of Tokyo Press. pp.12.
Nussbaum, "Ogosho" at p. 738.
Chie Nakane and Shinzaburou Oishi (1990). Tokugawa Japan: The Social and Economic Antecedents of Modern Japan. University of Tokyo Press. pp.24–28.
Nussbaum, "Kanjō bugyō" at p. 473.
Nussbaum, "Tenryō", p. 961.
Shinsengumi, The Shogun's Last Samurai Corps, Romulus, Hillsborough, Tuttle Publishing, 2005
Ravina, Mark (2004).Last Samurai: The Life and Battles of Saigo Takamori. John Wiley & Sons, 2004
Nussbaum, "Tokugawa Mitsukuni" at p. 979.
Nussbaum, "Tokugawa Nariaki" at p. 979.
Nussbaum, "Tayasu" at p. 954.
Nussbaum, "Matsudaira Katamori" at p. 616.
Nussbaum, "Matsudaira Sadanobu" at p. 617.
References
Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth. (2005). Japan Encyclopedia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01753-5; OCLC 48943301
This article incorporates public domain material from the Library of Congress Country Studies website lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/.

Further reading
Bolitho, Harold. (1974). Treasures Among Men: The Fudai Daimyo in Tokugawa Japan. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-01655-0; OCLC 185685588
Totman, Conrad. The Collapse of the Tokugawa Bakufu, 1862–1868. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1980.
Totman, Conrad. Politics in the Tokugawa Bakufu, 1600–1843. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1967.
Waswo, Ann Modern Japanese Society 1868–1994
The Center for East Asian Cultural Studies Meiji Japan Through Contemporary Sources, Volume Two 1844–1882

[Freddie]

The Ninja Ranking System is a universal system in the ninja world. It is used officially for all Villages, and only doesn't apply for Missing Ninja. Thus it shows a fine line between actual Villages and their systems regarding it.

History
The Ninja Ranking System was initially organized in the Iron Country once all Villages came together. It was decided, through meeting grounds that this was how it was going to be placed. After the creation of Leaf in which there were only 4 other Villages created after it(Mist, Cloud, Rock, and Sand) all villages decided to agree. The lower ranked villages just went on with it.

It was then decided these 5 Powerful Nations would go by this system, and any other village they'd be able to decide the system going on by it. So it soon became a law equal to not only all Daimyo but the Leaders of each Village that the system would go by ranking for the ninja and it merely became commonplace for any ninja village to go through ranking system, otherwise it wasn't considering a Ninja Village. The 5 strongest nations would have the Kage based off of their country. The Hokage(Leaf), Mizukage(Mist), Raikage(Cloud), Tsuchikage(Rock), Kazekage(Sand).

After the system was decided, it became a quarrel between the lower nations to catch up to the 5 Stronger Nations. After the war initiated, each village was brought into such a depression that they automatically considered the leader of the village the "Kage." At both times, the Kage would have to be a strong force and not only just strong, but a great leader. Thus it became hard to find Leaders, some villages not even capable of producing a leader and during those harsh times, a lot of things occured that just made things messy. After such an event, there were no such things as the 5 Great Nations.

After the destruction with barely any records held, only two countries was left. The villages built inside of these two countries, the "Taka" and "Earth" countries. Some villages after the war for the survival of villages would soon take another name for their Kage system, but also kept their ranking system. For example: Otokami, Amekoutei.

Ranks
Academy Student
An official rank stating you are NOT a ninja. This rank is basically "Ninja" in training.
Default Class Level: E

Genin
The first rank of ninja and lowest class of Ninja. Genin are ninja primarily just starting out up to the point of ninja who are unable to access the Chuunin Exam. Most ninja actually become a Chuunin in their lifetime and normally before age 20, except for some occasions. If a vote is done, the Village Council can make a Genin, Chuunin but the primary way a Chuunin is decided is through the age-old system, the Chuunin Exam. A peaceful contract between the villages temporarily for an event. A Genin must normally be place in a Squad led by a Jounin.
Default Class Level: D

Chuunin
A Chuunin is a middle-classed ninja. Each suit they were is now dependant on the village, normally all having a form of track-vest most likely in different colors and different set ups for the Ninja to record his or her's items. A Ninja should have a lot more skills now as a Chuunin and thus they actually have the ability to start leading Squads, and in fact will start leading Squads in a sense for experience later on. Some Chuunin can go into teaching Academy Students.
Default Class Level: C

Special Jounin
A Special Jounin is the small stage right before Jounin and after Chuunin. A special Jounin are normally the Chuunin Proctors, but there are small exceptions. A Special Jounin is a Jounin-Leveled NInja but is only a master in one art, compared to a Jounin who is a master in all arts. A Special Jounin is also excepted to lead Squads and be very important in higher-up ninja.
Default Class Level: B

Jounin
The Highest ranked official ninja. Most Leaders are at least Jounin before becoming of the Leadership Rank. When made a Jounin, they are given the suit according to the Village, such as Leaf's Blue Jumpsuit. Jounin are high ranked ninja, thus they are the bulk of most armies and military force and a village has a large supply of Jounin, considering it's their main defence and offense. All ninja would strive to become a Jounin and they are placed on the hardest of ninja. A Jounin, unlike the Special Jounin must be skilled in all forms of art, otherwise they would remain a Special Jounin. This way, a Jounin could always still have a chance fighting against someone more skilled than them.
Default Class Level: A

Sage
Sage is the name of the rank of anyone of Kage Level, leadership level. Anyone under the name of Hokage, Amekoutei, Otokami or Tsuchikage is a Sage typed ninja. These ninja are the higher up of the village now, and are voted in to become a Sage. There can only be one leader of the village and the leader holds a lot of power over the village, and possibly the post power over the Council. The system of the leader primarily is based off of the Village's structure itself though, as some villages may decide to go toward Tyranny as a system. Sage should be unreal ninja in terms of strength, but also leadership.
Default Class Level: S