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Common Security and Defence Policy
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"CSDP" redirects here. For other uses, see CSDP (disambiguation).
Common Security and Defence Policy
(European Defence Union)
Insignia of the European External Action Service.svg European Defence Agency logo.svg
Emblems of the External Action Service (EEAS; left) and Defence Agency (EDA; right)
Coat of arms of the European Union Military Committee.svg Coat of arms of Europe.svg Coat of arms of the European Union Military Staff.svg
Arms of the Military Committee (EUMC; left) and its chairman (CEUMC; middle), as well as the Military Staff (EUMS, part of the EEAS; right)
Founded 1999 (as the European Security and Defence Policy)
Current form 2009 (Treaty of Lisbon)
Headquarters Kortenberg building, Brussels, Belgium
Website eeas.europa.eu
Leadership
High Representative Josep Borrell
Director General of the Military Staff LTG Esa Pulkkinen
Chairman of the Military Committee GEN Claudio Graziano
Manpower
Active personnel 1,410,626 (2016)[1]
Reserve personnel 2,330,803
Expenditures
Budget €223.4 billion ($249.3 billion) (2018)[2]
Percent of GDP 1.4% (2018)[3]
Related articles
History History of the Common Security and Defence Policy
The Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) is the European Union's (EU) course of action in the fields of defence and crisis management, and a main component of the EU's Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP).
The CSDP involves military or civilian missions being deployed to preserve peace, prevent conflict and strengthen international security in accordance with the principles of the United Nations Charter. Military missions are carried out by EU forces established with secondments from the member states' armed forces. The CSDP also entails collective self-defence amongst member states as well as a Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) in which 25 of the 27 national armed forces pursue structural integration. The CSDP structure — headed by the Union's High Representative (HR/VP), Josep Borrell, and sometimes referred to as the European Defence Union (EDU) in relation to its prospective development as the EU's defence arm[4][5][6] — comprises:
the European Commission's Defence Industry Directorate-General
the External Action Service's (EEAS) Crisis Management and Planning Directorate (CMPD) and permanent Operation Headquarters (OHQs) for command and control (C2) at the military/civilian strategic level, i.e. the MPCC and CPCC.
a number of Foreign Affairs Council (FAC) preparatory bodies — such as the Military Committee (EUMC)
four agencies, including the Defence Agency (EDA)
The EU command & control structures are much smaller than the North Atlantic Treaty Organization's (NATO) Command Structure (NCS), which has been established for territorial defence. It has been agreed that NATO's Allied Command Operations (ACO) may be used for the conduct of the EU's missions. The MPCC, established in 2017 and to be strengthened in 2020, is the EU's first permanent military OHQ. In parallel, the newly established European Defence Fund (EDF) marks the first time the EU budget is used to finance multinational defence projects.
Decisions relating to the CSDP are proposed by the HR/VP, adopted by the FAC, generally requiring unanimity, and then implemented by the HR/VP.
Politics of the European Union
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Member states (27)
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Contents
1 History
1.1 Deployments
2 Structure
3 Strategy
4 Forces
4.1 National
4.1.1 Expenditure and personnel
4.1.2 Naval forces
4.1.3 Land forces
4.1.4 Air forces
4.2 Multinational
4.2.1 Established at Union level
4.2.2 Provided through Article 42.3 TEU
5 Participation, relationship with NATO
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
History
Main article: History of the Common Security and Defence Policy
The commands of Western Union service branches were situated in the Palace of Fontainebleau from 1948 until they were transformed into NATO's Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe in 1951.
Time illustration of divisions planned for the EDC, which in 1954 failed to acquire French ratification.
The post-war period saw several short-lived or ill-fated initiatives for European defence integration intended to protect against potential Soviet or German aggression: The Western Union (WU, also referred to as the Brussels Treaty Organisation, BTO) and the proposed European Defence Community (EDC) were respectively cannibalised by the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) and rejected by the French Parliament. The largely dormant Western European Union (WEU) succeeded the WU's remainder in 1955.
In 1970 the European Political Cooperation (EPC) brought about the European Communities' (EC) initial foreign policy coordination. Opposition to the addition of security and defence matters to the EPC led to the reactivation of the WEU in 1984 by its member states, which were also EC member states.
European defence integration gained momentum soon after the end of the Cold War, partly as a result of the EC's failure to prevent the Yugoslav Wars. In 1992, the WEU was given new tasks, and the following year the Treaty of Maastricht founded the EU and replaced the EPC with the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) pillar. In 1996 NATO agreed to let the WEU develop a so-called European Security and Defence Identity (ESDI).[7] The 1998 St. Malo declaration signalled that the traditionally hesitant United Kingdom was prepared to provide the EU with autonomous defence structures.[8] This facilitated the transformation of the ESDI into the European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP) in 1999, when it was transferred to the EU. In 2003 the EU deployed its first CSDP missions, and adopted the European Security Strategy identifying common threats and objectives. In 2009, the Treaty of Lisbon introduced the present name, CSDP, while establishing the EEAS, the mutual defence clause and enabling a subset of member states to pursue defence integration within PESCO. In 2011 the WEU, whose tasks had been transferred to the EU, was dissolved. In 2016 a new security strategy was introduced, which along with the Russian annexation of Crimea, the British withdrawal from the EU and the election of Trump as US President have given the CSDP a new impetus.
Since the end of World War II, sovereign European countries have entered into treaties and thereby co-operated and harmonised policies (or pooled sovereignty) in an increasing number of areas, in the so-called European integration project or the construction of Europe (French: la construction européenne). The following timeline outlines the legal inception of the European Union (EU)—the principal framework for this unification. The EU inherited many of its present responsibilities from the European Communities (EC), which were founded in the 1950s in the spirit of the Schuman Declaration.
Legend:
S: signing
F: entry into force
T: termination
E: expiry
de facto supersession
Rel. w/ EC/EU framework:
de facto inside
outside Flag of Europe.svg European Union (EU) [Cont.]
Flag of Europe.svg European Communities (EC) (Pillar I)
European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC or Euratom) [Cont.]
Flag of the European Coal and Steel Community 6 Star Version.svg / Flag of the European Coal and Steel Community 9 Star Version.svg / Flag of the European Coal and Steel Community 10 Star Version.svg / Flag of the European Coal and Steel Community 12 Star Version.svg European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) (Distr. of competences)
European Economic Community (EEC)
Schengen Rules European Community (EC)
'TREVI' Justice and Home Affairs (JHA, pillar II)
Flag of NATO.svg North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) [Cont.] Police and Judicial Co-operation in Criminal Matters (PJCC, pillar II)
Flag of France.svg Flag of the United Kingdom.svg
Anglo-French alliance [Defence arm handed to NATO] European Political Co-operation (EPC) Common Foreign and Security Policy
(CFSP, pillar III)
Flag of the Western Union.svg Western Union (WU) Flag of the Western European Union (1993-1995).svg / Flag of the Western European Union.svg Western European Union (WEU) [Tasks defined following the WEU's 1984 reactivation handed to the EU]
[Social, cultural tasks handed to CoE] [Cont.] vte
Flag of Europe.svg Council of Europe (CoE)
Dunkirk Treaty¹
S: 4 March 1947
F: 8 September 1947
E: 8 September 1997 Brussels Treaty¹
S: 17 March 1948
F: 25 August 1948
T: 30 June 2011 London and Washington treaties¹
S: 5 May/4 April 1949
F: 3 August/24 August 1949 Paris treaties: ECSC and EDC⁶
S: 18 April 1951/27 May 1952
F: 23 July 1952/—
E: 23 July 2002/— Protocol Modifying and
Completing the Brussels Treaty¹
S: 23 October 1954
F: 6 May 1955 Rome treaties: EEC² and EAEC
S: 25 March 1957
F: 1 January 1958 WEU-CoE agreement¹
S: 21 October 1959
F: 1 January 1960 Brussels (Merger) Treaty³
S: 8 April 1965
F: 1 July 1967 Davignon report
S: 27 October 1970 European Council conclusions
S: 2 December 1975 Single European Act (SEA)
S: 17/28 February 1986
F: 1 July 1987 Schengen Treaty and Convention
S: 14 June 1985/19 June 1990
F: 26 March 1995 Maastricht Treaty², ⁴
S: 7 February 1992
F: 1 November 1993 Amsterdam Treaty
S: 2 October 1997
F: 1 May 1999 Nice Treaty
S: 26 February 2001
F: 1 February 2003 Lisbon Treaty⁵
S: 13 December 2007
F: 1 December 2009
Deployments
Main article: List of military and civilian missions of the European Union
Since 2002, the European Union has intervened abroad thirty-five times in three different continents.
The first deployment of European troops under the ESDP, following the 1999 declaration of intent, was in March 2003 in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM, today: North Macedonia). Operation Concordia used NATO assets and was considered a success and replaced by a smaller police mission, EUPOL Proxima, later that year. Since then, there have been other small police, justice and monitoring missions. As well as in the FYROM, the EU has maintained its deployment of peacekeepers in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as part of Operation Althea.[9]
Between May and September 2003 EU troops were deployed to the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) during "Operation Artemis" under a mandate given by UN Security Council Resolution 1484 which aimed to prevent further atrocities and violence in the Ituri Conflict and put the DRC's peace process back on track. This laid out the "framework nation" system to be used in future deployments. The EU returned to the DRC during July–November 2006 with EUFOR RD Congo, which supported the UN mission there during the country's elections.
Geographically, EU missions outside the Balkans and the DRC have taken place in Georgia, Indonesia, Sudan, Palestine, and Ukraine–Moldova. There is also a judicial mission in Iraq (EUJUST Lex). On 28 January 2008, the EU deployed its largest and most multi-national mission to Africa, EUFOR Tchad/RCA.[10] The UN-mandated mission involves troops from 25 EU states (19 in the field) deployed in areas of eastern Chad and the north-eastern Central African Republic in order to improve security in those regions. EUFOR Tchad/RCA reached full operation capability in mid-September 2008, and handed over security duties to the UN (MINURCAT mission) in mid-March 2009.[11]
The EU launched its first maritime CSDP operation on 12 December 2008 (Operation Atalanta). The concept of the European Union Naval Force (EU NAVFOR) was created on the back of this operation, which is still successfully combatting piracy off the coast of Somalia almost a decade later. A second such intervention was launched in 2015 to tackle migration problems in the southern Mediterranean (EUNAVFOR Med), working under the name Operation SOPHIA.
Most of the CSDP missions deployed so far are mandated to support Security Sector Reforms (SSR) in host-states. One of the core principles of CSDP support to SSR is local ownership. The EU Council defines ownership as "the appropriation by the local authorities of the commonly agreed objectives and principles".[12] Despite EU's strong rhetorical attachment to the local ownership principle, research shows that CSDP missions continue to be an externally driven, top-down and supply-driven endeavour, resulting often in the low degree of local participation.[13]
Structure
Main article: Structure of the Common Security and Defence Policy
High Representative Josep Borrell
The CSDP involves military or civilian missions being deployed to preserve peace, prevent conflict and strengthen international security in accordance with the principles of the United Nations Charter. Military missions are carried out by EU forces established with contributions from the member states' armed forces. The CSDP also entails collective self-defence amongst member states[c] as well as a Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) in which 25 of the 27 national armed forces pursue structural integration. The CSDP structure, headed by the Union's High Representative (HR/VP), Josep Borrell, comprises:
the Defence Industry Directorate-General of the European Commission
relevant sections of the External Action Service (EEAS) — including the Military Staff (EUMS) with its so-called Military Planning and Conduct Capability (MPCC)
a number of Foreign Affairs Council (FAC) preparatory bodies — such as the Military Committee (EUMC)
four agencies, including the Defence Agency (EDA)
While the EU has a command and control (C2) structure, it has no standing permanent military structure along the lines of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization's (NATO) Allied Command Operations (ACO), although it has been agreed that ACO resources may be used for the conduct of the EU's CSDP missions. The MPCC, established in 2017 and to be strengthened in 2020, does however represent the EU's first step in developing a permanent military headquarters. In parallel, the newly established European Defence Fund (EDF) marks the first time the EU budget is used to finance multinational defence projects. The CSDP structure is sometimes referred to as the European Defence Union (EDU), especially in relation to its prospective development as the EU's defence arm.[4][5][6][d]
Decisions relating to the CSDP are proposed by the HR/VP, adopted by the FAC, generally requiring unanimity, and then implemented by the HR/VP.
The EU command and control (C2) structure, as directed by political bodies which are composed of member states's representatives and generally require unanimous decisions, as of April 2019:[14]
Liaison: Advice and recommendations Support and monitoring Preparatory work vte
Political strategic level:
ISS EUCO Pres. (EUCO) Chain of command
Coordination/support
SatCen CIVCOM HR/VP (FAC)
INTCEN HR/VP (PMG) HR/VP (PSC) (******) Coat of arms of Europe.svg Coat of arms of the European Union Military Committee.svg
Golden star.svgGolden star.svgGolden star.svgGolden star.svg
CEUMC (EUMC)
CMPD Coat of arms of the European Union Military Staff.svg
Golden star.svgGolden star.svgGolden star.svg
DGEUMS (***) (EUMS)
Military/civilian strategic level:
Coat of arms of the European Union Military Staff.svg
Golden star.svgGolden star.svgGolden star.svg
Dir MPCC (***) (MPCC) JSCC Civ OpCdr CPCC(*)
Operational level:
MFCdr (****) (MFHQ) HoM (*)
Tactical level:
CC(**) Land CC(**) Air CC(**) Mar Other CCs(**)
Forces Forces Forces Forces
*In the event of a CSDP Civilian Mission also being in the field, the relation with the Civilian Planning and Conduct Capability (CPCC) and its Civilian Operation Commander (Civ OpCdr), as well as the subordinate Head of Mission (HoM), are coordinated as shown.
**Other Component Commanders (CCs) and service branches which may be established
***The MPCC is part of the EUMS and Dir MPCC is double-hatted as DGEUMS. Unless the MPCC is used as Operation Headquarters (OHQ), either a national OHQ offered by member states or the NATO Command Structure (NCS) would serve this purpose. In the latter instance, Deputy Supreme Allied Commander Europe (DSACEUR), rather than Dir MPCC, would serve as Operation Commander (OpCdr).
****Unless the MPCC is used as Operation Headquarters (OHQ), the MFCdr would be known as a Force Commander (FCdr), and direct a Force Headquarters (FHQ) rather than a MFHQ. Whereas the MFHQ would act both on the operational and tactical level, the FHQ would act purely on the operational level.
*****The political strategic level is not part of the C2 structure per se, but represents the political bodies, with associated support facilities, that determine the missions' general direction. The Council determines the role of the High Representative (HR/VP), who serves as Vice-President of the European Commission, attends European Council meetings, chairs the Foreign Affairs Council (FAC) and may chair the Political and Security Committee (PSC) in times of crisis. The HR/VP proposes and implements CSDP decisions.
******Same composition as Committee of Permanent Representatives (COREPER) II, which also prepares for the CSDP-related work of the FAC.
Strategy
Main article: European Union Global Strategy
The European Union Global Strategy (EUGS) is the updated doctrine of the EU to improve the effectiveness of the CSDP, including the defence and security of the members states, the protection of civilians, cooperation between the member states' armed forces, management of immigration, crises etc. Adopted on 28 June 2016,[15] it replaces the European Security Strategy of 2003. The EUGS is complemented by a document titled "Implementation Plan on Security and Defense" (IPSD).[16]
Forces
Main article: Defence forces of the European Union
National
National armed forces' personnel combined (2016)[17] vte
The CSDP is implemented using civilian and military contributions from member states' armed forces, which also are obliged to collective self-defence based on Treaty on European Union (TEU).
Five EU states host nuclear weapons: France has its own nuclear programmes, while Belgium, Germany, Italy and the Netherlands host US nuclear weapons as part of NATO's nuclear sharing policy. Combined, the EU possesses 300 warheads, and hosts between 90 and 130 US warheads. Italy hosts 70-90 B61 nuclear bombs, while Germany, Belgium, and the Netherlands 10-20 each one.[18] The EU has the third largest arsenal of nuclear weapons, after the United States and Russia.
Expenditure and personnel
Further information: List of countries by military expenditures
The following table presents the military expenditures of the members of the European Union in euros (€). The combined military expenditure of the member states amounted to €223.4 billion in 2018.[2] This represents 1.4% of European Union GDP. European military expenditure includes spending on joint projects such as the Eurofighter Typhoon and joint procurement of equipment. The European Union's combined active military forces in 2016 totaled 1,410,626 personnel.[1]
In a speech in 2012, Swedish General Håkan Syrén criticised the spending levels of European Union countries, saying that in the future those countries' military capability will decrease, creating "critical shortfalls".[19]
Guide to table:
All figure entries in the table below are provided by the European Defence Agency for the year 2017, except for Germany's personnel figure, which is for 2016. Figures from other sources are not included.
The "operations & maintenance expenditure" category may in some circumstances also include finances on-top of the nations defence budget.
The categories "troops prepared for deployed operations" and "troops prepared for deployed and sustained operation" only include land force personnel.
Member state Expenditure (€ mn.) Per capita (€) % of GDP Operations & maintenance expenditure (€ mn.) Active military personnel Land troops prepared for deployed and sustained operations Reserve personnel
Austria Austria[1] 2,647 301 0.72 574 24,190 1,100 950,000
Belgium Belgium[1] 3,965 349 0.90 680 27,789 1,293 3,300
Bulgaria Bulgaria[1] 771 109 1.53 118 30,218 1,168 3,000
Croatia Croatia[1] 615 149 1.26 154 14,862 796 18,343
Cyprus Cyprus[1] 352 409 1.83 63 20,000 0 75,000
Czech Republic Czech Republic[1] 1,944 184 1.01 474 23,036 672 3,236
Estonia Estonia[1] 478 363 2.08 158 6,178 100 60,000
Finland Finland[1] 2,879 523 1.29 919 7,515 1,738 900,000
France France[1] 40,852 609 1.79 10,201 208,251 17,000 38,550
Germany Germany[1] 40,447 489 1.24 177,608 29,200
Greece Greece[1] 4,213 393 2.37 504 106,624 2,432
Hungary Hungary[1] 1,197 122 0.97 492 23,846 1,000 20,000
Republic of Ireland Ireland[1] 915 191 0.31 103 9,500 850 1,778
Italy Italy[1] 20,534 339 1.20 1,583 181,116 18,300
Latvia Latvia[1] 470 243 1.75 132 5,686 75 3,000
Lithuania Lithuania[1] 724 256 1.73 145 14,350 26,000
Luxembourg Luxembourg[1] 289 484 0.52 30 824 57
Malta Malta[1] 57 122 0.51 8 1,808 30
Netherlands Netherlands[1] 8,686 507 1.18 2,144 40,196 1,500 5,046
Poland Poland[1] 8,683 226 1.86 1,918 106,500 60 75,400
Portugal Portugal[1] 2,422 235 1.25 142 32,726 1,698
Romania Romania[1] 3,627 185 1.93 277 69,542 2,961 50,000
Slovakia Slovakia[1] 993 183 1.17 198 13,152 846
Slovenia Slovenia[1] 422 204 0.98 72 6,342 707 1,000
Spain Spain[1] 10,739 231 0.92 1,891 120,812 7,410 15,150
Sweden Sweden[1] 4,638 460 0.97 1,973 14,500 750 34,500
European Union EU[1] 163,559 365 1.01 1,287,171
Naval forces
Ambox current red Asia Australia.svg
This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (November 2018)
Charles de Gaulle aircraft carrier is one of the largest commissioned warships in the European Union.
The combined component strength of the naval forces of member states is some 513 commissioned warships. Of those in service, 4 are fleet carriers. The EU also has 4 amphibious assault ships and 20 amphibious support ships in service. Of the EU's 49 submarines, 10 are nuclear-powered submarines while 39 are conventional attack submarines.
Operation Atalanta (formally European Union Naval Force Somalia) is the first ever (and still ongoing) naval operation of the European Union. It is part of a larger global action by the EU in the Horn of Africa to deal with the Somali crisis. As of January 2011 twenty-three EU nations participate in the operation.
France and Italy have blue-water navies.[20]
Guide to table:
Ceremonial vessels, research vessels, supply vessels, training vessels, and icebreakers are not included.
The table only counts warships that are commissioned (or equivalent) and active.
Surface vessels displacing less than 200 tonnes are not included, regardless of other characteristics.
The "amphibious support ship" category includes amphibious transport docks and dock landing ships, and tank landing ships.
Frigates over 6,000 tonnes are classified as destroyers.
The "patrol vessel" category includes missile boats.
The "anti-mine ship" category includes mine countermeasures vessels, minesweepers and minehunters.
Generally, total tonnage of ships is more important than total number of ships, as it gives a better indication of capability.
Member state Fleet carrier Amphibious assault ship Amphibious support ship Destroyer Frigate Corvette Patrol vessel Anti‑mine ship Missile sub. Attack sub. Total Tonnage
Austria Austria 0 0
Belgium Belgium[21] 2 2 5 9 10,009
Bulgaria Bulgaria 1 4 3 1 10 18 15,160
Croatia Croatia 5 2 7 2,869
Cyprus Cyprus 5 5 0
Czech Republic Czech Republic 0 0
Denmark Denmark[22] 5 4 9 18 51,235
Estonia Estonia 3 3 2,000
Finland Finland 4 4 12 20 5,429
France France[23] 1 3 2 13 11 20 18 4 6 76 319,195
Germany Germany[24] 3 7 5 8 15 6 44 82,790
Greece Greece[25] 9 13 33[26] 4 11[26] 70 138,565
Hungary Hungary 0 0
Republic of Ireland Ireland[27] 8 8 11,219
Italy Italy[28] 2 3 4 14 5 11 10 8 57 303,411
Latvia Latvia 5 5 3,025
Lithuania Lithuania[29] 4 4 8 5,678
Luxembourg Luxembourg 0 0
Malta Malta[30] 2 2 1,419
Netherlands Netherlands[31] 2 4 2 4 6 4 22 116,308
Poland Poland[32] 5 2 1 3 19 3 28 19,724
Portugal Portugal[33] 5 7 7 2 23 34,686
Romania Romania[34] 3 7 6 5 21 23,090
Slovakia Slovakia 0 0
Slovenia Slovenia[35] 1 1 2 435
Spain Spain[36] 1[e] (1)[e] 2 5[f] 6[g] 23 6 3 46 148,607
Sweden Sweden[37] 6 11 5 22 14,256
European Union EU 4 4 24 34 73 38 156 136 4 48 ~514 ~1,309,110
Land forces
Ambox current red Asia Australia.svg
This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (November 2018)
The Leopard 2 main battle tank
Combined, the member states of the European Union maintain large numbers of various land-based military vehicles and weaponry.
Guide to table:
The table is not exhaustive and primarily includes vehicles and EU-NATO member countries under the Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty (CFE treaty). Unless otherwise specified.
The CFE treaty only includes vehicles stationed within Europe, vehicles overseas on operations are not counted.
The "main battle tank" category also includes tank destroyers (such as the Italian B1 Centauro) or any self-propelled armoured fighting vehicle, capable of heavy firepower. According to the CFE treaty.
The "armoured fighting vehicle" category includes any armoured vehicle primarily designed to transport infantry and equipped with an automatic cannon of at least 20 mm calibre. According to the CFE treaty.
The "artillery" category includes self-propelled or towed howitzers and mortars of 100 mm calibre and above. Other types of artillery are not included regardless of characteristics. According to the CFE treaty.
The "attack helicopter" category includes any rotary wing aircraft armed and equipped to engage targets or equipped to perform other military functions (such as the Apache or the Wildcat). According to the CFE treaty.
The "military logistics vehicle" category includes logistics trucks of 4-tonne, 8-tonne, 14-tonne or larger, purposely designed for military tasking. Not under CFE treaty.
Member state Main battle tank Armoured fighting vehicle Artillery Attack helicopter Military logistics vehicle
Austria Austria 54 364 73
Belgium Belgium[38] 226 133 27
Bulgaria Bulgaria[38] 362 681 1,035 12
Croatia Croatia[39] 75 283 127 10
Cyprus Cyprus
Czech Republic Czech Republic[38] 123 501 182 24
Denmark Denmark[38] 46 229 56 12
Estonia Estonia[40] 74
Finland Finland 180 1,080 722 25
France France[38] 450 6,256 349 283 10,746
Germany Germany[38] 815 1,774 401 158
Greece Greece[38] 1,622 2,187 1,920 29
Hungary Hungary[38] 30 400 12 8
Republic of Ireland Ireland[41] 107 36
Italy Italy[38] 1,176 3,145 1,446 107 10,921
Latvia Latvia
Lithuania Lithuania[42] 88 96
Luxembourg Luxembourg
Malta Malta
Netherlands Netherlands[38] 16 634 135 21
Poland Poland[43] 1,675 3,110 1,580 83
Portugal Portugal[38] 220 425 377
Romania Romania[38] 857 1,272 1,273 23
Slovakia Slovakia[38] 30 327 68
Slovenia Slovenia 76 52 63
Spain Spain[38] 484 1,007 811 27
Sweden Sweden 120 978 268
European Union EU[38] 7,268 13,541 9,159 773
Air forces
Ambox current red Asia Australia.svg
This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (November 2018)
The air forces of EU member states operate a wide range of military systems and hardware. This is primarily due to the independent requirements of each member state and also the national defence industries of some member states. However such programmes like the Eurofighter Typhoon and Eurocopter Tiger have seen many European nations design, build and operate a single weapons platform. 60% of overall combat fleet was developed and manufactured by member states, 32% are US-origin, but some of these were assembled in Europe, while remaining 8% are soviet-made aircraft. As of 2014, it is estimated that the European Union had around 2,000 serviceable combat aircraft (fighter aircraft and ground-attack aircraft).[44]
The EUs air-lift capabilities are evolving with the future introduction of the Airbus A400M (another example of EU defence cooperation). The A400M is a tactical airlifter with strategic capabilities.[45] Around 140 are initially expected to be operated by 5 member states (Luxembourg, France, Germany, Spain and Belgium).
Guide to tables:
The tables are sourced from figures provided by Flight International for the year 2020.
Aircraft are grouped into three main types (indicated by colours): red for combat aircraft, green for aerial refueling aircraft, and grey for strategic and tactical transport aircraft.
The two "other" columns include additional aircraft according to their type sorted by colour (i.e. the "other" category in red includes combat aircraft, while the "other" category in grey includes both aerial refueling and transport aircraft). This was done because it was not feasible allocate every aircraft type its own column.
Other aircraft such as trainers, helicopters, UAVs and reconnaissance or surveillance aircraft are not included in the below tables or figures.
Fighter and ground-attack
Member state Typhoon Rafale Mirage 2000 Gripen F-16 F/A-18 F-35 Tornado MiG-29 Other Total
Austria Austria[44] 15 15
Belgium Belgium[44] 43 (34) 43
Bulgaria Bulgaria[44] 13 4 Su-25 17
Croatia Croatia[44] 12 MiG-21 12
Cyprus Cyprus[44]
Czech Republic Czech Republic[44] 12 16 L-159 28
Denmark Denmark[44] 33 (27) 33
Estonia Estonia[44]
Finland Finland[44] 62 62
France France[44] 143 126 269
Germany Germany[44] 128 74 202
Greece Greece[44] 42 153 33 F-4 228
Hungary Hungary[44] 12 12
Republic of Ireland Ireland[44]
Italy Italy[44] 90 14 (61) 53 32 AMX, 14 Harrier II 203
Latvia Latvia[44]
Lithuania Lithuania[44]
Luxembourg Luxembourg[44]
Malta Malta[44]
Netherlands Netherlands[44] 60 15 (31) 75
Poland Poland[44] 36 (32) 23 22 Su-22 81
Portugal Portugal[44] 24 24
Romania Romania[44] 9 17 MiG-21 26
Slovakia Slovakia[44] 10 10
Slovenia Slovenia[44]
Spain Spain[44] 65 72 12 Harrier II 149
Sweden Sweden[44] 71 71
European Union EU[44] 298 143 166 95 319 134 29 127 46 162 1,560
Aerial refueling and transport
Member state A330 MRTT A310 MRTT KC-135/707 C-17 C-130 C-160 C-27J CN-235/C-295 An-26 A400M Other Total
Austria Austria[44] 3 8 PC-6 11
Belgium Belgium[44] 9 3 ERJ-135/145 12
Bulgaria Bulgaria[44] 2 1 1 L-410 & 1 PC-12 5
Croatia Croatia[44]
Cyprus Cyprus[44] 1 BN-2 1
Czech Republic Czech Republic[44] 4 4 L-410 8
DenmarkDenmark[44] 4 4
Estonia Estonia[44] 2 An-28/M28 2
Finland Finland[44] 3 3 Learjet 35 & 6 PC-12NG 12
France France[44] 2 14 16 15 27 15 3 A340 92
Germany Germany[44] 4 42 31 2 A319 76
Greece Greece[44] 13 8 21
Hungary Hungary[44] 4 4
Republic of Ireland Ireland[44] 2 1 BNT-2 CC2/B 3
Italy Italy[44] 16 12 4 KC-767
3 KC-130J
3 A319 38
Latvia Latvia[44]
Lithuania Lithuania[44] 3 1 4
Luxembourg Luxembourg[44] 1 1
Malta Malta[44] 2 BNT-2 CC2/B
2 King Air 200 4
Netherlands Netherlands[44] 4 2 (K)DC-10 6
Poland Poland[44] 5 16 20
Portugal Portugal[44] 6 7 13
Romania Romania[44] 2 7 2 11
Slovakia Slovakia[44] 2 2
Slovenia Slovenia[44] 1 Let L-410 Turbolet
2 Pilatus PC-6 Porter
1 Dassault Falcon 2000 4
Spain Spain[44] 2 7 21 6 5 KC-130H
2 A310 37
Sweden Sweden[44] 7 1 KC-130H 8
Shared within EU 3 (6) part of MMF 3
European Union EU[44] 5 4 16 0 83 107 30 81 16 53 41 384
Multinational
Established at Union level
Irish Army personnel from the Nordic Battle Group at an exercise in 2010
The Helsinki Headline Goal Catalogue is a listing of rapid reaction forces composed of 60,000 troops managed by the European Union, but under control of the countries who deliver troops for it.
Forces introduced at Union level include:
The battle groups (BG) adhere to the CSDP, and are based on contributions from a coalition of member states. Each of the eighteen Battlegroups consists of a battalion-sized force (1,500 troops) reinforced with combat support elements.[46][47] The groups rotate actively, so that two are ready for deployment at all times. The forces are under the direct control of the Council of the European Union. The Battlegroups reached full operational capacity on 1 January 2007, although, as of January 2013 they are yet to see any military action.[48] They are based on existing ad hoc missions that the European Union (EU) has undertaken and has been described by some as a new "standing army" for Europe.[47] The troops and equipment are drawn from the EU member states under a "lead nation". In 2004, United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan welcomed the plans and emphasised the value and importance of the Battlegroups in helping the UN deal with troublespots.[49]
The Medical Command (EMC) is a planned medical command centre in support of EU missions, formed as part of the Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO).[50] The EMC will provide the EU with a permanent medical capability to support operations abroad, including medical resources and a rapidly deployable medical task force. The EMC will also provide medical evacuation facilities, triage and resuscitation, treatment and holding of patients until they can be returned to duty, and emergency dental treatment. It will also contribute to harmonising medical standards, certification and legal (civil) framework conditions.[51]
The Force Crisis Response Operation Core (EUFOR CROC) is a flagship defence project under development as part of Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO). EURFOR CROC will contribute to the creation of a "full spectrum force package" to speed up provision of military forces and the EU's crisis management capabilities.[52] Rather than creating a standing force, the project involves creating a concrete catalogue of military force elements that would speed up the establishment of a force when the EU decides to launch an operation. It is land-focused and aims to generate a force of 60,000 troops from the contributing states alone. While it does not establish any form of "European army", it foresees an deployable, interoperable force under a single command.[53] Germany is the lead country for the project, but the French are heavily involved and it is tied to President Emmanuel Macron's proposal to create a standing intervention force. The French see it as an example of what PESCO is about.[54]
Provided through Article 42.3 TEU
Personnel of the European Corps in Strasbourg, France, during a change of command ceremony in 2013
This section presents an incomplete list of forces and bodies established intergovernmentally amongst a subset of member states. These organisations will deploy forces based on the collective agreement of their member states. They are typically technically listed as being able to be deployed under the auspices of NATO, the United Nations, the European Union (EU) through Article 42.3 of TEU, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, or any other international entity.
However, with the exception of the Eurocorps, very few have actually been deployed for any real military operation, and none under the CSDP at any point in its history.
Land Forces:
The Eurocorps is an army corps of approximately 1,000 soldiers stationed in Strasbourg, France. Based in the French city of Strasbourg, the corps is the nucleus of the Franco-German Brigade.[55]
The I. German/Dutch Corps is a multinational formation consisting of units from the Dutch and German armies. Due to its role as a NATO High Readiness Forces Headquarters, soldiers from other NATO member states, the United States, Denmark, Norway, Spain, Italy, the United Kingdom amongst others, are also stationed at Münster.
The Multinational Corps Northeast, a Danish-German-Polish multinational corps
The European Gendarmerie Force, an intervention force with militarised police functions which specializes in crisis management.[56]
Aerial:
The European Air Transport Command exercises operational control of the majority of the aerial refueling capabilities and military transport fleets of its participating nations. Located at Eindhoven Airbase in the Netherlands, the command also bears a limited responsibility for exercises, aircrew training and the harmonisation of relevant national air transport regulations.[57][58] The command was established in 2010 to provide a more efficient management of the participating nations' assets and resources in this field.
Naval:
The European Maritime Force (EUROMARFOR or EMF) is a non-standing,[59] military force[60] that may carry out naval, air and amphibious operations, with an activation time of 5 days after an order is received.[61] The force was formed in 1995 to fulfill missions defined in the Petersberg Declaration, such as sea control, humanitarian missions, peacekeeping operations, crisis response operations, and peace enforcement.
Participation, relationship with NATO
Further information: European Union–NATO relations
Out of the 27 EU member states, 21 are also members of NATO. Another four NATO members are EU applicants—Albania, Montenegro, North Macedonia and Turkey. Two others—Iceland and Norway—have opted to remain outside of the EU, however participate in the EU's single market. The memberships of the EU and NATO are distinct, and some EU member states are traditionally neutral on defence issues. Several EU member states were formerly members of the Warsaw Pact. Denmark has an opt-out from the CSDP.[1]
Non-European countries
National participation in the principal European and trans-Atlantic defence arrangements[citation needed]
State European Union NATO Organisation for
Joint Armament
Cooperation
Membership Common Security and Defence Policy
General
participation Permanent Structured
Cooperation
Albania Candidate No No 2009 No
Austria 1995 Founder Founder No No
Belgium Founder Founder Founder Founder 2003
Bosnia and Herzegovina Candidate No No Membership Action Plan No
Bulgaria 2007 2007 Founder 2004 No
Canada No No No Founder No
Cyprus 2004 2007 Founder No No
Croatia 2013 2013 Founder 2009 No
Czech Republic 2004 2004 Founder 1999 No
Denmark 1973 No No Founder No
Estonia 2004 2004 Founder 2004 No
Finland 1995 Founder Founder No Partial
France Founder Founder Founder Founder Founder
Germany Founder Founder Founder 1955 Founder
Greece 1981 Founder Founder 1952 No
Hungary 2004 2004 Founder 1999 No
Iceland No No No Founder No
Ireland 1973 Founder Founder No No
Italy Founder Founder Founder Founder Founder
Kosovo No No No No No
Latvia 2004 2004 Founder 2004 No
Lithuania 2004 2004 Founder 2004 Partial
Luxembourg Founder Founder Founder Founder Partial
Malta 2004 2004 No No No
Montenegro Candidate No No 2017 No
Netherlands Founder Founder Founder Founder Partial
North Macedonia Candidate No No 2020 No
Norway No EDA partnership No Founder No
Poland 2004 2004 Founder 1999 Partial
Portugal 1986 Founder Founder Founder No
Romania 2007 2007 Founder 2004 No
Serbia Candidate EDA partnership No Individual Partnership Action Plan No
Slovakia 2004 2004 Founder 2004 No
Slovenia 2004 2004 Founder 2004 No
Spain 1986 Founder Founder 1982 Founder
Sweden 1995 Founder Founder No Partial
Switzerland No EDA partnership No No No
Turkey Candidate No No 1952 Partial
Ukraine No EDA partnership No No No
United Kingdom No No No Founder Founder
United States No No No Founder No
The Berlin Plus agreement is the short title of a comprehensive package of agreements made between NATO and the EU on 16 December 2002.[62] These agreements were based on conclusions of NATO's 1999 Washington summit, sometimes referred to as the CJTF mechanism,[63] and allowed the EU to draw on some of NATO's military assets in its own peacekeeping operations.
Chart presented in 2012 by then Director General of the Military Staff Lt. gen. Ton van Osch, asserting that the utility of the combined civilian and military components of the EU policy could be considered more effective than NATO for a limited level of conflict.
See also
flag European Union portal
War portal
European Union as an emerging superpower
European countries by military expenditure as a percentage of government expenditure
Neutral country#European Union
Other defence-related EU initiatives:
Military Mobility (PESCO)
European Centre of Excellence for Countering Hybrid Threats (Hybrid CoE), an EU-supported intergovernmental think-tank
Other Pan-European defence organisations (intergovernmental):
Organisation for Joint Armament Cooperation (OCCAR)
Finabel, an organisation, controlled by the army chiefs of staff of its participating nations, that promotes cooperation and interoperability between the armies.[64]
Organisation for Joint Armament Cooperation (OCCAR), an organisation that facilitates and manages collaborative armament programmes through their lifecycle between its participating nations.
European Air Group (EAG), an organisation that promotes cooperation and interoperability between the air forces of its participating nations.
European Organisation of Military Associations and Trade Unions (EUROMIL)
European Personnel Recovery Centre (EPRC), an organisation that contributes to the development and harmonisation of policies and standards related to personnel recovery.
European Intervention Initiative
Regional, integorvernmental defence organisations in Europe:
Nordic Defence Cooperation (NORDEFCO)
Central European Defence Cooperation (CEDC)
Atlanticist intergovernmental defence organisations:
North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)
Movement Coordination Centre Europe (MCCE), an organisation aiming to coordinate the use of airlift, sealift and land movement assets owned or leased by participating nations.
Notes
The responsibility of collective self-defence within the CSDP is based on Article 42.7 of TEU, which states that this responsibility does not prejudice the specific character of the security and defence policy of certain member states, referring to policies of neutrality. See Neutral country§European Union for discussion on this subject.According to the Article 42.7 "If a Member State is the victim of armed aggression on its territory, the other Member States shall have towards it an obligation of aid and assistance by all the means in their power, in accordance with Article 51 of the United Nations Charter. This shall not prejudice the specific character of the security and defence policy of certain Member States." Article 42.2 furthermore specifies that NATO shall be the main forum for the implementation of collective self-defence for EU member states that are also NATO members.
Akin to the EU’s banking union, economic and monetary union and customs union.
The responsibility of collective self-defence within the CSDP is based on Article 42.7 of TEU, which states that this responsibility does not prejudice the specific character of the security and defence policy of certain member states, referring to policies of neutrality. See Neutral country§European Union for discussion on this subject.According to the Article 42.7 "If a Member State is the victim of armed aggression on its territory, the other Member States shall have towards it an obligation of aid and assistance by all the means in their power, in accordance with Article 51 of the United Nations Charter. This shall not prejudice the specific character of the security and defence policy of certain Member States." Article 42.2 furthermore specifies that NATO shall be the main forum for the implementation of collective self-defence for EU member states that are also NATO members.
Akin to the EU’s banking union, economic and monetary union and customs union.
Spain withdrew last classic aircraft carrier Príncipe de Asturias in 2013 (currently in reserve). New universal ship of Juan Carlos I has the function of fleet carrier and amphibious assault ship.
F-100 class
Santa María class
References
Defence Data Portal, Official 2005–2017 defence statistics from the European Defence Agency
Defence Data 2017–2018, Official 2018 defence statistics from the European Defence Agency
"DEFENCE DATA 2017-2018".
"Texts adopted - Tuesday, 22 November 2016 - European Defence Union - P8_TA(2016)0435". www.europarl.europa.eu.
"European Commission - PRESS RELEASES - Press release - European Commission welcomes first operational steps towards a European Defence Union *". europa.eu.
"Archived copy". Archived from the original on 25 December 2017. Retrieved 18 June 2018.
"Glossary of summaries - EUR-Lex". eur-lex.europa.eu.
"EU to spend €1.5bn a year on joint defence". EUobserver.
Christopher S. Chivvis, "Birthing Athena. The Uncertain Future of ESDP" Archived 2008-06-27 at the Wayback Machine, Focus stratégique, Paris, Ifri, March 2008.
"EUFOR Tchad/RCA" consilium.europa.eu
Benjamin Pohl (2013) The logic underpinning EU crisis management operations Archived 2014-12-14 at the Wayback Machine, European Security, 22(3): 307–325, DOI:10.1080/09662839.2012.726220, p. 311.
www.ifp-ew.eu/resources/EU_Concept_for_ESDP_support_to_Security_Sector_Reform.pdf[dead link]
Ejdus, Filip (2 October 2017). ""Here is your mission, now own it!" The rhetoric and practice of local ownership in EU interventions". European Security. 26 (4): 461–484. doi:10.1080/09662839.2017.1333495 – via Taylor and Francis+NEJM.
EU Command and Control, p. 13, Military Staff
(Stratégie globale de l'Union européenne, p. 1)
(Conclusions du Conseil du 14 novembre 2016)
European Defence Agency: DEFENCE DATA 2006-2016
"USAF Report: "Most" Nuclear Weapon Sites In Europe Do Not Meet US Security Requirements » FAS Strategic Security Blog". 10 March 2013. Archived from the original on 10 March 2013.
Croft, Adrian (19 September 2012). "Some EU states may no longer afford air forces-general". Reuters. Retrieved 31 March 2013.
Todd, Daniel; Lindberg, Michael (1996). Navies and Shipbuilding Industries: The Strained Symbiosis. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 56–57. ISBN 9780275953102
Marinecomponent Hoofdpagina. Mil.be. Retrieved on 2011-12-17.
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(in German) Offizieller Internetauftritt der Marine. www.marine.de. Retrieved on 2011-12-17.
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"Πολεμικό Ναυτικό - Επίσημη Ιστοσελίδα - Αρχική". www.hellenicnavy.gr. Archived from the original on 3 February 2020. Retrieved 9 November 2019.
Home | Defence Forces. Military.ie. Retrieved on 2011-12-17.
Marina Militare. Marina.difesa.it. Retrieved on 2011-12-17.
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(in Polish) Marynarka Wojenna Archived 11 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Mw.mil.pl. Retrieved on 2011-12-17.
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(in Romanian) Fortele Navale Române[permanent dead link]. Navy.ro. Retrieved on 2011-12-17.
Slovensko obalo bo varovala "Kresnica" :: Prvi interaktivni multimedijski portal, MMC RTV Slovenija. Rtvslo.si. Retrieved on 2011-12-17.
Presentación Buques de Superficie – Ships – Armada Española. Armada.mde.es. Retrieved on 2018-11-22.
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Ministry of Defence - Vehicle & Aircraft Holdings within the scope of the Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty: Annual: 2013 edition, gov.uk, (pp.10-13), Accessed 28 November 2014
"Archived copy". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 3 August 2015.
"Eesti hangib Soomest haubitsaid".
"Page not found - 404 Error page". www.military.ie. Cite uses generic title (help)
"Lithuania".
washington.mfa.gov.pl/en/about_the_embassy/waszyngton_us_a_en_embassy/waszyngton_us_a_en_military_attach/waszyngton_us_a_109[dead link]
- Flight International, Flightglobal.com, Accessed 19 September 2020
"RAF – A400m." Archived 30 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine RAF, MOD. Retrieved: 15 May 2010.
www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cmsUpload/Battlegroups.pdf[dead link]
New force behind EU foreign policy BBC News – 15 March 2007
"Europe in a foreign field". The Economist. 19 January 2013.
Value of EU 'Battlegroup' plan stressed by Annan Archived 13 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine forumoneurope.ie 15 October 2004
"In Defence of Europe - EPSC - European Commission". EPSC. 31 March 2016.
"Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) first collaborative PESCO projects" (PDF).
"Project outlines" (PDF).
"European Defence: What's in the CARDs for PESCO?" (PDF).
Barigazzi, Jacopo (10 December 2017). "EU unveils military pact projects". Politico. Retrieved 29 December 2017.
"Eurocorps' official website / History". Retrieved 23 February 2008.
Arcudi, Giovanni; Smith, Michael E. (2013). "The European Gendarmerie Force: A solution in search of problems?". European Security. 22: 1–20. doi:10.1080/09662839.2012.747511. S2CID 153388488.
"Eindhoven regelt internationale militaire luchtvaart".
"Claude-France Arnould Visits EATC Headquarters". Eda.europa.eu. Retrieved 19 February 2016.
EUROMARFOR – At Sea for Peace pamphlet[permanent dead link]. Retrieved 11 March 2012.
Biscop, Sven (2003). Euro-Mediterranean security: a search for partnership. Ashgate Publishing. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-7546-3487-4.
EUROMARFOR Retrospective – Portuguese Command[permanent dead link], page 12. Retrieved 11 March 2012.
NATO, Berlin Plus agreement, 21 June 2006."Archived copy". Archived from the original on 17 August 2007. Retrieved 19 August 2007.
Heritage Foundation report, 4 October 2004 : "Through the CJTF mechanism, NATO member states do not have to actively participate actively in a specific mission if they do not feel their vital interests are involved, but their opting out [...] would not stop other NATO members from participating in an intervention if they so desired." [1] Archived 5 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine
"Finabel information folder: "Finabel: Contributing to European Army Interoperability since 1953"" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 July 2011.
Further reading
Book – What ambitions for European defence in 2020?, European Union Institute for Security Studies
Book – European Security and Defence Policy: The first 10 years (1999–2009), European Union Institute for Security Studies
Book - Smith, Michael E. (2017). 'Europe's Common Security and Defence Policy: Capacity-Building, Experiential Learning, and Institutional Change' (Cambridge University Press).
"Guide to the ESDP" nov.2008 edition Exhaustive guide on ESDP's missions, institutions and operations, written and edited by the Permanent representation of France to the European Union.
Dijkstra, Hylke (2013). Policy-Making in EU Security and Defense: An Institutional Perspective. European Administrative Governance Series (Hardback 240pp ed.). Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke. ISBN 978-1-137-35786-1.
Nugent, Neill (2006). The Government and Politics of the European Union. The European Union Series (Paperback 630pp ed.). Palgrave Macmillan, New York. ISBN 9780230000025.
Howorth, Joylon (2007). Security and Defence Policy in the European Union. The European Union Series (Paperback 315pp ed.). Palgrave Macmillan, New York. ISBN 978-0-333-63912-2.
PhD Thesis on Civilian ESDP - EU Civilian crisis management (University of Geneva, 2008, 441 p. in French)
Hayes, Ben (2009). "NeoConOpticon: The EU Security-Industrial Complex". Statewatch : Newsletter (Paperback, 84 pp ed.). Transnational Institute/Statewatch. ISSN 1756-851X.
Giovanni Arcudi & Michael E. Smith (2013). The European Gendarmerie Force: a solution in search of problems?, European Security, 22(1): 1–20, DOI:10.1080/09662839.2012.747511
Teresa Eder (2014). Welche Befugnisse hat die Europäische Gendarmerietruppe?, Der Standard, 5 Februar 2014.
Alexander Mattelaer (2008). The Strategic Planning of EU Military Operations – The Case of EUFOR Tchad/RCA, IES Working Paper 5/2008.
Benjamin Pohl (2013). The logic underpinning EU crisis management operations, European Security, 22(3): 307–325, DOI:10.1080/09662839.2012.726220
"The Russo-Georgian War and Beyond: towards a European Great Power Concert", Danish Institute of International Studies.
U.S Army Strategic Studies Institute (SSI), Operation EUFOR TCHAD/RCA and the EU's Common Security and Defense Policy., U.S. Army War College, October 2010
Mai'a K. Davis Cross "Security Integration in Europe: How Knowledge-based Networks are Transforming the European Union." University of Michigan Press, 2011.
Butler, Graham (2020). "The European Defence Union and Denmark's Defence Opt-out: A Legal Appraisal". European Foreign Affairs Review. 25 (1): 117–150.
External links
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Common Security and Defence Policy
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"CSDP" redirects here. For other uses, see CSDP (disambiguation).
Common Security and Defence Policy
(European Defence Union)
Insignia of the European External Action Service.svg European Defence Agency logo.svg
Emblems of the External Action Service (EEAS; left) and Defence Agency (EDA; right)
Coat of arms of the European Union Military Committee.svg Coat of arms of Europe.svg Coat of arms of the European Union Military Staff.svg
Arms of the Military Committee (EUMC; left) and its chairman (CEUMC; middle), as well as the Military Staff (EUMS, part of the EEAS; right)
Founded 1999 (as the European Security and Defence Policy)
Current form 2009 (Treaty of Lisbon)
Headquarters Kortenberg building, Brussels, Belgium
Website eeas.europa.eu
Leadership
High Representative Josep Borrell
Director General of the Military Staff LTG Esa Pulkkinen
Chairman of the Military Committee GEN Claudio Graziano
Manpower
Active personnel 1,410,626 (2016)[1]
Reserve personnel 2,330,803
Expenditures
Budget €223.4 billion ($249.3 billion) (2018)[2]
Percent of GDP 1.4% (2018)[3]
Related articles
History History of the Common Security and Defence Policy
The Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) is the European Union's (EU) course of action in the fields of defence and crisis management, and a main component of the EU's Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP).
The CSDP involves military or civilian missions being deployed to preserve peace, prevent conflict and strengthen international security in accordance with the principles of the United Nations Charter. Military missions are carried out by EU forces established with secondments from the member states' armed forces. The CSDP also entails collective self-defence amongst member states as well as a Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) in which 25 of the 27 national armed forces pursue structural integration. The CSDP structure — headed by the Union's High Representative (HR/VP), Josep Borrell, and sometimes referred to as the European Defence Union (EDU) in relation to its prospective development as the EU's defence arm[4][5][6] — comprises:
the European Commission's Defence Industry Directorate-General
the External Action Service's (EEAS) Crisis Management and Planning Directorate (CMPD) and permanent Operation Headquarters (OHQs) for command and control (C2) at the military/civilian strategic level, i.e. the MPCC and CPCC.
a number of Foreign Affairs Council (FAC) preparatory bodies — such as the Military Committee (EUMC)
four agencies, including the Defence Agency (EDA)
The EU command & control structures are much smaller than the North Atlantic Treaty Organization's (NATO) Command Structure (NCS), which has been established for territorial defence. It has been agreed that NATO's Allied Command Operations (ACO) may be used for the conduct of the EU's missions. The MPCC, established in 2017 and to be strengthened in 2020, is the EU's first permanent military OHQ. In parallel, the newly established European Defence Fund (EDF) marks the first time the EU budget is used to finance multinational defence projects.
Decisions relating to the CSDP are proposed by the HR/VP, adopted by the FAC, generally requiring unanimity, and then implemented by the HR/VP.
Politics of the European Union
Flag of Europe.svg
Member states (27)
Treaties
Executive
Legislature
Judiciary
Auditory
Euratom
Euro
Schengen Area
European Economic Area
Other bodies
Elections
Law
Policies and issues
Other
Foreign relations
Flag of Europe.svg European Union portal
Other countries
vte
Contents
1 History
1.1 Deployments
2 Structure
3 Strategy
4 Forces
4.1 National
4.1.1 Expenditure and personnel
4.1.2 Naval forces
4.1.3 Land forces
4.1.4 Air forces
4.2 Multinational
4.2.1 Established at Union level
4.2.2 Provided through Article 42.3 TEU
5 Participation, relationship with NATO
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
History
Main article: History of the Common Security and Defence Policy
The commands of Western Union service branches were situated in the Palace of Fontainebleau from 1948 until they were transformed into NATO's Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe in 1951.
Time illustration of divisions planned for the EDC, which in 1954 failed to acquire French ratification.
The post-war period saw several short-lived or ill-fated initiatives for European defence integration intended to protect against potential Soviet or German aggression: The Western Union (WU, also referred to as the Brussels Treaty Organisation, BTO) and the proposed European Defence Community (EDC) were respectively cannibalised by the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) and rejected by the French Parliament. The largely dormant Western European Union (WEU) succeeded the WU's remainder in 1955.
In 1970 the European Political Cooperation (EPC) brought about the European Communities' (EC) initial foreign policy coordination. Opposition to the addition of security and defence matters to the EPC led to the reactivation of the WEU in 1984 by its member states, which were also EC member states.
European defence integration gained momentum soon after the end of the Cold War, partly as a result of the EC's failure to prevent the Yugoslav Wars. In 1992, the WEU was given new tasks, and the following year the Treaty of Maastricht founded the EU and replaced the EPC with the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) pillar. In 1996 NATO agreed to let the WEU develop a so-called European Security and Defence Identity (ESDI).[7] The 1998 St. Malo declaration signalled that the traditionally hesitant United Kingdom was prepared to provide the EU with autonomous defence structures.[8] This facilitated the transformation of the ESDI into the European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP) in 1999, when it was transferred to the EU. In 2003 the EU deployed its first CSDP missions, and adopted the European Security Strategy identifying common threats and objectives. In 2009, the Treaty of Lisbon introduced the present name, CSDP, while establishing the EEAS, the mutual defence clause and enabling a subset of member states to pursue defence integration within PESCO. In 2011 the WEU, whose tasks had been transferred to the EU, was dissolved. In 2016 a new security strategy was introduced, which along with the Russian annexation of Crimea, the British withdrawal from the EU and the election of Trump as US President have given the CSDP a new impetus.
Since the end of World War II, sovereign European countries have entered into treaties and thereby co-operated and harmonised policies (or pooled sovereignty) in an increasing number of areas, in the so-called European integration project or the construction of Europe (French: la construction européenne). The following timeline outlines the legal inception of the European Union (EU)—the principal framework for this unification. The EU inherited many of its present responsibilities from the European Communities (EC), which were founded in the 1950s in the spirit of the Schuman Declaration.
Legend:
S: signing
F: entry into force
T: termination
E: expiry
de facto supersession
Rel. w/ EC/EU framework:
de facto inside
outside Flag of Europe.svg European Union (EU) [Cont.]
Flag of Europe.svg European Communities (EC) (Pillar I)
European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC or Euratom) [Cont.]
Flag of the European Coal and Steel Community 6 Star Version.svg / Flag of the European Coal and Steel Community 9 Star Version.svg / Flag of the European Coal and Steel Community 10 Star Version.svg / Flag of the European Coal and Steel Community 12 Star Version.svg European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) (Distr. of competences)
European Economic Community (EEC)
Schengen Rules European Community (EC)
'TREVI' Justice and Home Affairs (JHA, pillar II)
Flag of NATO.svg North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) [Cont.] Police and Judicial Co-operation in Criminal Matters (PJCC, pillar II)
Flag of France.svg Flag of the United Kingdom.svg
Anglo-French alliance [Defence arm handed to NATO] European Political Co-operation (EPC) Common Foreign and Security Policy
(CFSP, pillar III)
Flag of the Western Union.svg Western Union (WU) Flag of the Western European Union (1993-1995).svg / Flag of the Western European Union.svg Western European Union (WEU) [Tasks defined following the WEU's 1984 reactivation handed to the EU]
[Social, cultural tasks handed to CoE] [Cont.] vte
Flag of Europe.svg Council of Europe (CoE)
Dunkirk Treaty¹
S: 4 March 1947
F: 8 September 1947
E: 8 September 1997 Brussels Treaty¹
S: 17 March 1948
F: 25 August 1948
T: 30 June 2011 London and Washington treaties¹
S: 5 May/4 April 1949
F: 3 August/24 August 1949 Paris treaties: ECSC and EDC⁶
S: 18 April 1951/27 May 1952
F: 23 July 1952/—
E: 23 July 2002/— Protocol Modifying and
Completing the Brussels Treaty¹
S: 23 October 1954
F: 6 May 1955 Rome treaties: EEC² and EAEC
S: 25 March 1957
F: 1 January 1958 WEU-CoE agreement¹
S: 21 October 1959
F: 1 January 1960 Brussels (Merger) Treaty³
S: 8 April 1965
F: 1 July 1967 Davignon report
S: 27 October 1970 European Council conclusions
S: 2 December 1975 Single European Act (SEA)
S: 17/28 February 1986
F: 1 July 1987 Schengen Treaty and Convention
S: 14 June 1985/19 June 1990
F: 26 March 1995 Maastricht Treaty², ⁴
S: 7 February 1992
F: 1 November 1993 Amsterdam Treaty
S: 2 October 1997
F: 1 May 1999 Nice Treaty
S: 26 February 2001
F: 1 February 2003 Lisbon Treaty⁵
S: 13 December 2007
F: 1 December 2009
Deployments
Main article: List of military and civilian missions of the European Union
Since 2002, the European Union has intervened abroad thirty-five times in three different continents.
The first deployment of European troops under the ESDP, following the 1999 declaration of intent, was in March 2003 in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM, today: North Macedonia). Operation Concordia used NATO assets and was considered a success and replaced by a smaller police mission, EUPOL Proxima, later that year. Since then, there have been other small police, justice and monitoring missions. As well as in the FYROM, the EU has maintained its deployment of peacekeepers in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as part of Operation Althea.[9]
Between May and September 2003 EU troops were deployed to the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) during "Operation Artemis" under a mandate given by UN Security Council Resolution 1484 which aimed to prevent further atrocities and violence in the Ituri Conflict and put the DRC's peace process back on track. This laid out the "framework nation" system to be used in future deployments. The EU returned to the DRC during July–November 2006 with EUFOR RD Congo, which supported the UN mission there during the country's elections.
Geographically, EU missions outside the Balkans and the DRC have taken place in Georgia, Indonesia, Sudan, Palestine, and Ukraine–Moldova. There is also a judicial mission in Iraq (EUJUST Lex). On 28 January 2008, the EU deployed its largest and most multi-national mission to Africa, EUFOR Tchad/RCA.[10] The UN-mandated mission involves troops from 25 EU states (19 in the field) deployed in areas of eastern Chad and the north-eastern Central African Republic in order to improve security in those regions. EUFOR Tchad/RCA reached full operation capability in mid-September 2008, and handed over security duties to the UN (MINURCAT mission) in mid-March 2009.[11]
The EU launched its first maritime CSDP operation on 12 December 2008 (Operation Atalanta). The concept of the European Union Naval Force (EU NAVFOR) was created on the back of this operation, which is still successfully combatting piracy off the coast of Somalia almost a decade later. A second such intervention was launched in 2015 to tackle migration problems in the southern Mediterranean (EUNAVFOR Med), working under the name Operation SOPHIA.
Most of the CSDP missions deployed so far are mandated to support Security Sector Reforms (SSR) in host-states. One of the core principles of CSDP support to SSR is local ownership. The EU Council defines ownership as "the appropriation by the local authorities of the commonly agreed objectives and principles".[12] Despite EU's strong rhetorical attachment to the local ownership principle, research shows that CSDP missions continue to be an externally driven, top-down and supply-driven endeavour, resulting often in the low degree of local participation.[13]
Structure
Main article: Structure of the Common Security and Defence Policy
High Representative Josep Borrell
The CSDP involves military or civilian missions being deployed to preserve peace, prevent conflict and strengthen international security in accordance with the principles of the United Nations Charter. Military missions are carried out by EU forces established with contributions from the member states' armed forces. The CSDP also entails collective self-defence amongst member states[c] as well as a Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) in which 25 of the 27 national armed forces pursue structural integration. The CSDP structure, headed by the Union's High Representative (HR/VP), Josep Borrell, comprises:
the Defence Industry Directorate-General of the European Commission
relevant sections of the External Action Service (EEAS) — including the Military Staff (EUMS) with its so-called Military Planning and Conduct Capability (MPCC)
a number of Foreign Affairs Council (FAC) preparatory bodies — such as the Military Committee (EUMC)
four agencies, including the Defence Agency (EDA)
While the EU has a command and control (C2) structure, it has no standing permanent military structure along the lines of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization's (NATO) Allied Command Operations (ACO), although it has been agreed that ACO resources may be used for the conduct of the EU's CSDP missions. The MPCC, established in 2017 and to be strengthened in 2020, does however represent the EU's first step in developing a permanent military headquarters. In parallel, the newly established European Defence Fund (EDF) marks the first time the EU budget is used to finance multinational defence projects. The CSDP structure is sometimes referred to as the European Defence Union (EDU), especially in relation to its prospective development as the EU's defence arm.[4][5][6][d]
Decisions relating to the CSDP are proposed by the HR/VP, adopted by the FAC, generally requiring unanimity, and then implemented by the HR/VP.
The EU command and control (C2) structure, as directed by political bodies which are composed of member states's representatives and generally require unanimous decisions, as of April 2019:[14]
Liaison: Advice and recommendations Support and monitoring Preparatory work vte
Political strategic level:
ISS EUCO Pres. (EUCO) Chain of command
Coordination/support
SatCen CIVCOM HR/VP (FAC)
INTCEN HR/VP (PMG) HR/VP (PSC) (******) Coat of arms of Europe.svg Coat of arms of the European Union Military Committee.svg
Golden star.svgGolden star.svgGolden star.svgGolden star.svg
CEUMC (EUMC)
CMPD Coat of arms of the European Union Military Staff.svg
Golden star.svgGolden star.svgGolden star.svg
DGEUMS (***) (EUMS)
Military/civilian strategic level:
Coat of arms of the European Union Military Staff.svg
Golden star.svgGolden star.svgGolden star.svg
Dir MPCC (***) (MPCC) JSCC Civ OpCdr CPCC(*)
Operational level:
MFCdr (****) (MFHQ) HoM (*)
Tactical level:
CC(**) Land CC(**) Air CC(**) Mar Other CCs(**)
Forces Forces Forces Forces
*In the event of a CSDP Civilian Mission also being in the field, the relation with the Civilian Planning and Conduct Capability (CPCC) and its Civilian Operation Commander (Civ OpCdr), as well as the subordinate Head of Mission (HoM), are coordinated as shown.
**Other Component Commanders (CCs) and service branches which may be established
***The MPCC is part of the EUMS and Dir MPCC is double-hatted as DGEUMS. Unless the MPCC is used as Operation Headquarters (OHQ), either a national OHQ offered by member states or the NATO Command Structure (NCS) would serve this purpose. In the latter instance, Deputy Supreme Allied Commander Europe (DSACEUR), rather than Dir MPCC, would serve as Operation Commander (OpCdr).
****Unless the MPCC is used as Operation Headquarters (OHQ), the MFCdr would be known as a Force Commander (FCdr), and direct a Force Headquarters (FHQ) rather than a MFHQ. Whereas the MFHQ would act both on the operational and tactical level, the FHQ would act purely on the operational level.
*****The political strategic level is not part of the C2 structure per se, but represents the political bodies, with associated support facilities, that determine the missions' general direction. The Council determines the role of the High Representative (HR/VP), who serves as Vice-President of the European Commission, attends European Council meetings, chairs the Foreign Affairs Council (FAC) and may chair the Political and Security Committee (PSC) in times of crisis. The HR/VP proposes and implements CSDP decisions.
******Same composition as Committee of Permanent Representatives (COREPER) II, which also prepares for the CSDP-related work of the FAC.
Strategy
Main article: European Union Global Strategy
The European Union Global Strategy (EUGS) is the updated doctrine of the EU to improve the effectiveness of the CSDP, including the defence and security of the members states, the protection of civilians, cooperation between the member states' armed forces, management of immigration, crises etc. Adopted on 28 June 2016,[15] it replaces the European Security Strategy of 2003. The EUGS is complemented by a document titled "Implementation Plan on Security and Defense" (IPSD).[16]
Forces
Main article: Defence forces of the European Union
National
National armed forces' personnel combined (2016)[17] vte
The CSDP is implemented using civilian and military contributions from member states' armed forces, which also are obliged to collective self-defence based on Treaty on European Union (TEU).
Five EU states host nuclear weapons: France has its own nuclear programmes, while Belgium, Germany, Italy and the Netherlands host US nuclear weapons as part of NATO's nuclear sharing policy. Combined, the EU possesses 300 warheads, and hosts between 90 and 130 US warheads. Italy hosts 70-90 B61 nuclear bombs, while Germany, Belgium, and the Netherlands 10-20 each one.[18] The EU has the third largest arsenal of nuclear weapons, after the United States and Russia.
Expenditure and personnel
Further information: List of countries by military expenditures
The following table presents the military expenditures of the members of the European Union in euros (€). The combined military expenditure of the member states amounted to €223.4 billion in 2018.[2] This represents 1.4% of European Union GDP. European military expenditure includes spending on joint projects such as the Eurofighter Typhoon and joint procurement of equipment. The European Union's combined active military forces in 2016 totaled 1,410,626 personnel.[1]
In a speech in 2012, Swedish General Håkan Syrén criticised the spending levels of European Union countries, saying that in the future those countries' military capability will decrease, creating "critical shortfalls".[19]
Guide to table:
All figure entries in the table below are provided by the European Defence Agency for the year 2017, except for Germany's personnel figure, which is for 2016. Figures from other sources are not included.
The "operations & maintenance expenditure" category may in some circumstances also include finances on-top of the nations defence budget.
The categories "troops prepared for deployed operations" and "troops prepared for deployed and sustained operation" only include land force personnel.
Member state Expenditure (€ mn.) Per capita (€) % of GDP Operations & maintenance expenditure (€ mn.) Active military personnel Land troops prepared for deployed and sustained operations Reserve personnel
Austria Austria[1] 2,647 301 0.72 574 24,190 1,100 950,000
Belgium Belgium[1] 3,965 349 0.90 680 27,789 1,293 3,300
Bulgaria Bulgaria[1] 771 109 1.53 118 30,218 1,168 3,000
Croatia Croatia[1] 615 149 1.26 154 14,862 796 18,343
Cyprus Cyprus[1] 352 409 1.83 63 20,000 0 75,000
Czech Republic Czech Republic[1] 1,944 184 1.01 474 23,036 672 3,236
Estonia Estonia[1] 478 363 2.08 158 6,178 100 60,000
Finland Finland[1] 2,879 523 1.29 919 7,515 1,738 900,000
France France[1] 40,852 609 1.79 10,201 208,251 17,000 38,550
Germany Germany[1] 40,447 489 1.24 177,608 29,200
Greece Greece[1] 4,213 393 2.37 504 106,624 2,432
Hungary Hungary[1] 1,197 122 0.97 492 23,846 1,000 20,000
Republic of Ireland Ireland[1] 915 191 0.31 103 9,500 850 1,778
Italy Italy[1] 20,534 339 1.20 1,583 181,116 18,300
Latvia Latvia[1] 470 243 1.75 132 5,686 75 3,000
Lithuania Lithuania[1] 724 256 1.73 145 14,350 26,000
Luxembourg Luxembourg[1] 289 484 0.52 30 824 57
Malta Malta[1] 57 122 0.51 8 1,808 30
Netherlands Netherlands[1] 8,686 507 1.18 2,144 40,196 1,500 5,046
Poland Poland[1] 8,683 226 1.86 1,918 106,500 60 75,400
Portugal Portugal[1] 2,422 235 1.25 142 32,726 1,698
Romania Romania[1] 3,627 185 1.93 277 69,542 2,961 50,000
Slovakia Slovakia[1] 993 183 1.17 198 13,152 846
Slovenia Slovenia[1] 422 204 0.98 72 6,342 707 1,000
Spain Spain[1] 10,739 231 0.92 1,891 120,812 7,410 15,150
Sweden Sweden[1] 4,638 460 0.97 1,973 14,500 750 34,500
European Union EU[1] 163,559 365 1.01 1,287,171
Naval forces
Ambox current red Asia Australia.svg
This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (November 2018)
Charles de Gaulle aircraft carrier is one of the largest commissioned warships in the European Union.
The combined component strength of the naval forces of member states is some 513 commissioned warships. Of those in service, 4 are fleet carriers. The EU also has 4 amphibious assault ships and 20 amphibious support ships in service. Of the EU's 49 submarines, 10 are nuclear-powered submarines while 39 are conventional attack submarines.
Operation Atalanta (formally European Union Naval Force Somalia) is the first ever (and still ongoing) naval operation of the European Union. It is part of a larger global action by the EU in the Horn of Africa to deal with the Somali crisis. As of January 2011 twenty-three EU nations participate in the operation.
France and Italy have blue-water navies.[20]
Guide to table:
Ceremonial vessels, research vessels, supply vessels, training vessels, and icebreakers are not included.
The table only counts warships that are commissioned (or equivalent) and active.
Surface vessels displacing less than 200 tonnes are not included, regardless of other characteristics.
The "amphibious support ship" category includes amphibious transport docks and dock landing ships, and tank landing ships.
Frigates over 6,000 tonnes are classified as destroyers.
The "patrol vessel" category includes missile boats.
The "anti-mine ship" category includes mine countermeasures vessels, minesweepers and minehunters.
Generally, total tonnage of ships is more important than total number of ships, as it gives a better indication of capability.
Member state Fleet carrier Amphibious assault ship Amphibious support ship Destroyer Frigate Corvette Patrol vessel Anti‑mine ship Missile sub. Attack sub. Total Tonnage
Austria Austria 0 0
Belgium Belgium[21] 2 2 5 9 10,009
Bulgaria Bulgaria 1 4 3 1 10 18 15,160
Croatia Croatia 5 2 7 2,869
Cyprus Cyprus 5 5 0
Czech Republic Czech Republic 0 0
Denmark Denmark[22] 5 4 9 18 51,235
Estonia Estonia 3 3 2,000
Finland Finland 4 4 12 20 5,429
France France[23] 1 3 2 13 11 20 18 4 6 76 319,195
Germany Germany[24] 3 7 5 8 15 6 44 82,790
Greece Greece[25] 9 13 33[26] 4 11[26] 70 138,565
Hungary Hungary 0 0
Republic of Ireland Ireland[27] 8 8 11,219
Italy Italy[28] 2 3 4 14 5 11 10 8 57 303,411
Latvia Latvia 5 5 3,025
Lithuania Lithuania[29] 4 4 8 5,678
Luxembourg Luxembourg 0 0
Malta Malta[30] 2 2 1,419
Netherlands Netherlands[31] 2 4 2 4 6 4 22 116,308
Poland Poland[32] 5 2 1 3 19 3 28 19,724
Portugal Portugal[33] 5 7 7 2 23 34,686
Romania Romania[34] 3 7 6 5 21 23,090
Slovakia Slovakia 0 0
Slovenia Slovenia[35] 1 1 2 435
Spain Spain[36] 1[e] (1)[e] 2 5[f] 6[g] 23 6 3 46 148,607
Sweden Sweden[37] 6 11 5 22 14,256
European Union EU 4 4 24 34 73 38 156 136 4 48 ~514 ~1,309,110
Land forces
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This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (November 2018)
The Leopard 2 main battle tank
Combined, the member states of the European Union maintain large numbers of various land-based military vehicles and weaponry.
Guide to table:
The table is not exhaustive and primarily includes vehicles and EU-NATO member countries under the Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty (CFE treaty). Unless otherwise specified.
The CFE treaty only includes vehicles stationed within Europe, vehicles overseas on operations are not counted.
The "main battle tank" category also includes tank destroyers (such as the Italian B1 Centauro) or any self-propelled armoured fighting vehicle, capable of heavy firepower. According to the CFE treaty.
The "armoured fighting vehicle" category includes any armoured vehicle primarily designed to transport infantry and equipped with an automatic cannon of at least 20 mm calibre. According to the CFE treaty.
The "artillery" category includes self-propelled or towed howitzers and mortars of 100 mm calibre and above. Other types of artillery are not included regardless of characteristics. According to the CFE treaty.
The "attack helicopter" category includes any rotary wing aircraft armed and equipped to engage targets or equipped to perform other military functions (such as the Apache or the Wildcat). According to the CFE treaty.
The "military logistics vehicle" category includes logistics trucks of 4-tonne, 8-tonne, 14-tonne or larger, purposely designed for military tasking. Not under CFE treaty.
Member state Main battle tank Armoured fighting vehicle Artillery Attack helicopter Military logistics vehicle
Austria Austria 54 364 73
Belgium Belgium[38] 226 133 27
Bulgaria Bulgaria[38] 362 681 1,035 12
Croatia Croatia[39] 75 283 127 10
Cyprus Cyprus
Czech Republic Czech Republic[38] 123 501 182 24
Denmark Denmark[38] 46 229 56 12
Estonia Estonia[40] 74
Finland Finland 180 1,080 722 25
France France[38] 450 6,256 349 283 10,746
Germany Germany[38] 815 1,774 401 158
Greece Greece[38] 1,622 2,187 1,920 29
Hungary Hungary[38] 30 400 12 8
Republic of Ireland Ireland[41] 107 36
Italy Italy[38] 1,176 3,145 1,446 107 10,921
Latvia Latvia
Lithuania Lithuania[42] 88 96
Luxembourg Luxembourg
Malta Malta
Netherlands Netherlands[38] 16 634 135 21
Poland Poland[43] 1,675 3,110 1,580 83
Portugal Portugal[38] 220 425 377
Romania Romania[38] 857 1,272 1,273 23
Slovakia Slovakia[38] 30 327 68
Slovenia Slovenia 76 52 63
Spain Spain[38] 484 1,007 811 27
Sweden Sweden 120 978 268
European Union EU[38] 7,268 13,541 9,159 773
Air forces
Ambox current red Asia Australia.svg
This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (November 2018)
The air forces of EU member states operate a wide range of military systems and hardware. This is primarily due to the independent requirements of each member state and also the national defence industries of some member states. However such programmes like the Eurofighter Typhoon and Eurocopter Tiger have seen many European nations design, build and operate a single weapons platform. 60% of overall combat fleet was developed and manufactured by member states, 32% are US-origin, but some of these were assembled in Europe, while remaining 8% are soviet-made aircraft. As of 2014, it is estimated that the European Union had around 2,000 serviceable combat aircraft (fighter aircraft and ground-attack aircraft).[44]
The EUs air-lift capabilities are evolving with the future introduction of the Airbus A400M (another example of EU defence cooperation). The A400M is a tactical airlifter with strategic capabilities.[45] Around 140 are initially expected to be operated by 5 member states (Luxembourg, France, Germany, Spain and Belgium).
Guide to tables:
The tables are sourced from figures provided by Flight International for the year 2020.
Aircraft are grouped into three main types (indicated by colours): red for combat aircraft, green for aerial refueling aircraft, and grey for strategic and tactical transport aircraft.
The two "other" columns include additional aircraft according to their type sorted by colour (i.e. the "other" category in red includes combat aircraft, while the "other" category in grey includes both aerial refueling and transport aircraft). This was done because it was not feasible allocate every aircraft type its own column.
Other aircraft such as trainers, helicopters, UAVs and reconnaissance or surveillance aircraft are not included in the below tables or figures.
Fighter and ground-attack
Member state Typhoon Rafale Mirage 2000 Gripen F-16 F/A-18 F-35 Tornado MiG-29 Other Total
Austria Austria[44] 15 15
Belgium Belgium[44] 43 (34) 43
Bulgaria Bulgaria[44] 13 4 Su-25 17
Croatia Croatia[44] 12 MiG-21 12
Cyprus Cyprus[44]
Czech Republic Czech Republic[44] 12 16 L-159 28
Denmark Denmark[44] 33 (27) 33
Estonia Estonia[44]
Finland Finland[44] 62 62
France France[44] 143 126 269
Germany Germany[44] 128 74 202
Greece Greece[44] 42 153 33 F-4 228
Hungary Hungary[44] 12 12
Republic of Ireland Ireland[44]
Italy Italy[44] 90 14 (61) 53 32 AMX, 14 Harrier II 203
Latvia Latvia[44]
Lithuania Lithuania[44]
Luxembourg Luxembourg[44]
Malta Malta[44]
Netherlands Netherlands[44] 60 15 (31) 75
Poland Poland[44] 36 (32) 23 22 Su-22 81
Portugal Portugal[44] 24 24
Romania Romania[44] 9 17 MiG-21 26
Slovakia Slovakia[44] 10 10
Slovenia Slovenia[44]
Spain Spain[44] 65 72 12 Harrier II 149
Sweden Sweden[44] 71 71
European Union EU[44] 298 143 166 95 319 134 29 127 46 162 1,560
Aerial refueling and transport
Member state A330 MRTT A310 MRTT KC-135/707 C-17 C-130 C-160 C-27J CN-235/C-295 An-26 A400M Other Total
Austria Austria[44] 3 8 PC-6 11
Belgium Belgium[44] 9 3 ERJ-135/145 12
Bulgaria Bulgaria[44] 2 1 1 L-410 & 1 PC-12 5
Croatia Croatia[44]
Cyprus Cyprus[44] 1 BN-2 1
Czech Republic Czech Republic[44] 4 4 L-410 8
DenmarkDenmark[44] 4 4
Estonia Estonia[44] 2 An-28/M28 2
Finland Finland[44] 3 3 Learjet 35 & 6 PC-12NG 12
France France[44] 2 14 16 15 27 15 3 A340 92
Germany Germany[44] 4 42 31 2 A319 76
Greece Greece[44] 13 8 21
Hungary Hungary[44] 4 4
Republic of Ireland Ireland[44] 2 1 BNT-2 CC2/B 3
Italy Italy[44] 16 12 4 KC-767
3 KC-130J
3 A319 38
Latvia Latvia[44]
Lithuania Lithuania[44] 3 1 4
Luxembourg Luxembourg[44] 1 1
Malta Malta[44] 2 BNT-2 CC2/B
2 King Air 200 4
Netherlands Netherlands[44] 4 2 (K)DC-10 6
Poland Poland[44] 5 16 20
Portugal Portugal[44] 6 7 13
Romania Romania[44] 2 7 2 11
Slovakia Slovakia[44] 2 2
Slovenia Slovenia[44] 1 Let L-410 Turbolet
2 Pilatus PC-6 Porter
1 Dassault Falcon 2000 4
Spain Spain[44] 2 7 21 6 5 KC-130H
2 A310 37
Sweden Sweden[44] 7 1 KC-130H 8
Shared within EU 3 (6) part of MMF 3
European Union EU[44] 5 4 16 0 83 107 30 81 16 53 41 384
Multinational
Established at Union level
Irish Army personnel from the Nordic Battle Group at an exercise in 2010
The Helsinki Headline Goal Catalogue is a listing of rapid reaction forces composed of 60,000 troops managed by the European Union, but under control of the countries who deliver troops for it.
Forces introduced at Union level include:
The battle groups (BG) adhere to the CSDP, and are based on contributions from a coalition of member states. Each of the eighteen Battlegroups consists of a battalion-sized force (1,500 troops) reinforced with combat support elements.[46][47] The groups rotate actively, so that two are ready for deployment at all times. The forces are under the direct control of the Council of the European Union. The Battlegroups reached full operational capacity on 1 January 2007, although, as of January 2013 they are yet to see any military action.[48] They are based on existing ad hoc missions that the European Union (EU) has undertaken and has been described by some as a new "standing army" for Europe.[47] The troops and equipment are drawn from the EU member states under a "lead nation". In 2004, United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan welcomed the plans and emphasised the value and importance of the Battlegroups in helping the UN deal with troublespots.[49]
The Medical Command (EMC) is a planned medical command centre in support of EU missions, formed as part of the Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO).[50] The EMC will provide the EU with a permanent medical capability to support operations abroad, including medical resources and a rapidly deployable medical task force. The EMC will also provide medical evacuation facilities, triage and resuscitation, treatment and holding of patients until they can be returned to duty, and emergency dental treatment. It will also contribute to harmonising medical standards, certification and legal (civil) framework conditions.[51]
The Force Crisis Response Operation Core (EUFOR CROC) is a flagship defence project under development as part of Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO). EURFOR CROC will contribute to the creation of a "full spectrum force package" to speed up provision of military forces and the EU's crisis management capabilities.[52] Rather than creating a standing force, the project involves creating a concrete catalogue of military force elements that would speed up the establishment of a force when the EU decides to launch an operation. It is land-focused and aims to generate a force of 60,000 troops from the contributing states alone. While it does not establish any form of "European army", it foresees an deployable, interoperable force under a single command.[53] Germany is the lead country for the project, but the French are heavily involved and it is tied to President Emmanuel Macron's proposal to create a standing intervention force. The French see it as an example of what PESCO is about.[54]
Provided through Article 42.3 TEU
Personnel of the European Corps in Strasbourg, France, during a change of command ceremony in 2013
This section presents an incomplete list of forces and bodies established intergovernmentally amongst a subset of member states. These organisations will deploy forces based on the collective agreement of their member states. They are typically technically listed as being able to be deployed under the auspices of NATO, the United Nations, the European Union (EU) through Article 42.3 of TEU, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, or any other international entity.
However, with the exception of the Eurocorps, very few have actually been deployed for any real military operation, and none under the CSDP at any point in its history.
Land Forces:
The Eurocorps is an army corps of approximately 1,000 soldiers stationed in Strasbourg, France. Based in the French city of Strasbourg, the corps is the nucleus of the Franco-German Brigade.[55]
The I. German/Dutch Corps is a multinational formation consisting of units from the Dutch and German armies. Due to its role as a NATO High Readiness Forces Headquarters, soldiers from other NATO member states, the United States, Denmark, Norway, Spain, Italy, the United Kingdom amongst others, are also stationed at Münster.
The Multinational Corps Northeast, a Danish-German-Polish multinational corps
The European Gendarmerie Force, an intervention force with militarised police functions which specializes in crisis management.[56]
Aerial:
The European Air Transport Command exercises operational control of the majority of the aerial refueling capabilities and military transport fleets of its participating nations. Located at Eindhoven Airbase in the Netherlands, the command also bears a limited responsibility for exercises, aircrew training and the harmonisation of relevant national air transport regulations.[57][58] The command was established in 2010 to provide a more efficient management of the participating nations' assets and resources in this field.
Naval:
The European Maritime Force (EUROMARFOR or EMF) is a non-standing,[59] military force[60] that may carry out naval, air and amphibious operations, with an activation time of 5 days after an order is received.[61] The force was formed in 1995 to fulfill missions defined in the Petersberg Declaration, such as sea control, humanitarian missions, peacekeeping operations, crisis response operations, and peace enforcement.
Participation, relationship with NATO
Further information: European Union–NATO relations
Out of the 27 EU member states, 21 are also members of NATO. Another four NATO members are EU applicants—Albania, Montenegro, North Macedonia and Turkey. Two others—Iceland and Norway—have opted to remain outside of the EU, however participate in the EU's single market. The memberships of the EU and NATO are distinct, and some EU member states are traditionally neutral on defence issues. Several EU member states were formerly members of the Warsaw Pact. Denmark has an opt-out from the CSDP.[1]
Non-European countries
National participation in the principal European and trans-Atlantic defence arrangements[citation needed]
State European Union NATO Organisation for
Joint Armament
Cooperation
Membership Common Security and Defence Policy
General
participation Permanent Structured
Cooperation
Albania Candidate No No 2009 No
Austria 1995 Founder Founder No No
Belgium Founder Founder Founder Founder 2003
Bosnia and Herzegovina Candidate No No Membership Action Plan No
Bulgaria 2007 2007 Founder 2004 No
Canada No No No Founder No
Cyprus 2004 2007 Founder No No
Croatia 2013 2013 Founder 2009 No
Czech Republic 2004 2004 Founder 1999 No
Denmark 1973 No No Founder No
Estonia 2004 2004 Founder 2004 No
Finland 1995 Founder Founder No Partial
France Founder Founder Founder Founder Founder
Germany Founder Founder Founder 1955 Founder
Greece 1981 Founder Founder 1952 No
Hungary 2004 2004 Founder 1999 No
Iceland No No No Founder No
Ireland 1973 Founder Founder No No
Italy Founder Founder Founder Founder Founder
Kosovo No No No No No
Latvia 2004 2004 Founder 2004 No
Lithuania 2004 2004 Founder 2004 Partial
Luxembourg Founder Founder Founder Founder Partial
Malta 2004 2004 No No No
Montenegro Candidate No No 2017 No
Netherlands Founder Founder Founder Founder Partial
North Macedonia Candidate No No 2020 No
Norway No EDA partnership No Founder No
Poland 2004 2004 Founder 1999 Partial
Portugal 1986 Founder Founder Founder No
Romania 2007 2007 Founder 2004 No
Serbia Candidate EDA partnership No Individual Partnership Action Plan No
Slovakia 2004 2004 Founder 2004 No
Slovenia 2004 2004 Founder 2004 No
Spain 1986 Founder Founder 1982 Founder
Sweden 1995 Founder Founder No Partial
Switzerland No EDA partnership No No No
Turkey Candidate No No 1952 Partial
Ukraine No EDA partnership No No No
United Kingdom No No No Founder Founder
United States No No No Founder No
The Berlin Plus agreement is the short title of a comprehensive package of agreements made between NATO and the EU on 16 December 2002.[62] These agreements were based on conclusions of NATO's 1999 Washington summit, sometimes referred to as the CJTF mechanism,[63] and allowed the EU to draw on some of NATO's military assets in its own peacekeeping operations.
Chart presented in 2012 by then Director General of the Military Staff Lt. gen. Ton van Osch, asserting that the utility of the combined civilian and military components of the EU policy could be considered more effective than NATO for a limited level of conflict.
See also
flag European Union portal
War portal
European Union as an emerging superpower
European countries by military expenditure as a percentage of government expenditure
Neutral country#European Union
Other defence-related EU initiatives:
Military Mobility (PESCO)
European Centre of Excellence for Countering Hybrid Threats (Hybrid CoE), an EU-supported intergovernmental think-tank
Other Pan-European defence organisations (intergovernmental):
Organisation for Joint Armament Cooperation (OCCAR)
Finabel, an organisation, controlled by the army chiefs of staff of its participating nations, that promotes cooperation and interoperability between the armies.[64]
Organisation for Joint Armament Cooperation (OCCAR), an organisation that facilitates and manages collaborative armament programmes through their lifecycle between its participating nations.
European Air Group (EAG), an organisation that promotes cooperation and interoperability between the air forces of its participating nations.
European Organisation of Military Associations and Trade Unions (EUROMIL)
European Personnel Recovery Centre (EPRC), an organisation that contributes to the development and harmonisation of policies and standards related to personnel recovery.
European Intervention Initiative
Regional, integorvernmental defence organisations in Europe:
Nordic Defence Cooperation (NORDEFCO)
Central European Defence Cooperation (CEDC)
Atlanticist intergovernmental defence organisations:
North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)
Movement Coordination Centre Europe (MCCE), an organisation aiming to coordinate the use of airlift, sealift and land movement assets owned or leased by participating nations.
Notes
The responsibility of collective self-defence within the CSDP is based on Article 42.7 of TEU, which states that this responsibility does not prejudice the specific character of the security and defence policy of certain member states, referring to policies of neutrality. See Neutral country§European Union for discussion on this subject.According to the Article 42.7 "If a Member State is the victim of armed aggression on its territory, the other Member States shall have towards it an obligation of aid and assistance by all the means in their power, in accordance with Article 51 of the United Nations Charter. This shall not prejudice the specific character of the security and defence policy of certain Member States." Article 42.2 furthermore specifies that NATO shall be the main forum for the implementation of collective self-defence for EU member states that are also NATO members.
Akin to the EU’s banking union, economic and monetary union and customs union.
The responsibility of collective self-defence within the CSDP is based on Article 42.7 of TEU, which states that this responsibility does not prejudice the specific character of the security and defence policy of certain member states, referring to policies of neutrality. See Neutral country§European Union for discussion on this subject.According to the Article 42.7 "If a Member State is the victim of armed aggression on its territory, the other Member States shall have towards it an obligation of aid and assistance by all the means in their power, in accordance with Article 51 of the United Nations Charter. This shall not prejudice the specific character of the security and defence policy of certain Member States." Article 42.2 furthermore specifies that NATO shall be the main forum for the implementation of collective self-defence for EU member states that are also NATO members.
Akin to the EU’s banking union, economic and monetary union and customs union.
Spain withdrew last classic aircraft carrier Príncipe de Asturias in 2013 (currently in reserve). New universal ship of Juan Carlos I has the function of fleet carrier and amphibious assault ship.
F-100 class
Santa María class
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Book – What ambitions for European defence in 2020?, European Union Institute for Security Studies
Book – European Security and Defence Policy: The first 10 years (1999–2009), European Union Institute for Security Studies
Book - Smith, Michael E. (2017). 'Europe's Common Security and Defence Policy: Capacity-Building, Experiential Learning, and Institutional Change' (Cambridge University Press).
"Guide to the ESDP" nov.2008 edition Exhaustive guide on ESDP's missions, institutions and operations, written and edited by the Permanent representation of France to the European Union.
Dijkstra, Hylke (2013). Policy-Making in EU Security and Defense: An Institutional Perspective. European Administrative Governance Series (Hardback 240pp ed.). Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke. ISBN 978-1-137-35786-1.
Nugent, Neill (2006). The Government and Politics of the European Union. The European Union Series (Paperback 630pp ed.). Palgrave Macmillan, New York. ISBN 9780230000025.
Howorth, Joylon (2007). Security and Defence Policy in the European Union. The European Union Series (Paperback 315pp ed.). Palgrave Macmillan, New York. ISBN 978-0-333-63912-2.
PhD Thesis on Civilian ESDP - EU Civilian crisis management (University of Geneva, 2008, 441 p. in French)
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External links
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Article 42–46 of the Treaty on European Union: Provisions on the Common Security and Defence Policy
Official website, European External Action Service
Security and Defence, European External Action Service
EU cooperation on security and defence, Council of the European Union
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Common Security and Defence Policy of the European Union
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Militaries of Europe
CFSP operational instrument: A proposed CSDP evolution in the Eurocorps and ESDI in NATO
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Categories: Military of the European Union
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